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    "en": "Volcanic lightning is an electrical discharge caused by a volcanic eruption. It is typically associated with ash-rich eruption plumes but can also arise from a range of volcanic processes including ground-hugging ash flows and lava-ocean entry (adapted from Mather and Harrison, 2006; Behnke and McNutt, 2014; and McNutt and Thomas, 2015). <br /> <p>Behnke, S.A. and S.R. McNutt, 2014. Using lightning observations as a volcanic eruption monitoring tool. Bulletin of Volcanology, 76:847. <a href=\"https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/geo_facpub/1413/\">10.1007/s00445-014-0847-1</a></p>"
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      "Explosive injection of volcanic ash and gas into the atmosphere produces a wide range of electrical activity (Behnke and McNutt, 2014). The most hazardous electrical phenomenon is cloud-to-ground volcanic lightning, which creates a transient channel of hot plasma between a volcanic cloud and the ground. Exactly like ordinary thunderstorms, cloud-to-ground lightning from volcanic eruptions can produce thunder, trigger wildfires and destroy unshielded monitoring equipment or other infrastructure. Despite its potential impact, there are only a handful of documented cases where volcanic lightning resulted in injury or death (McNutt and Thomas, 2015). In general, the hazards of volcanic lightning increase with eruptive intensity (McNutt and Williams, 2010; Behnke et al., 2013): The origin of volcanic plume electrification is a topic of active investigation, but it is clear that at least two distinct processes are involved. Silicate charging occurs close to the eruptive vent, during magma fragmentation and high-energy collisions among airborne rock particles (Mather and Harrison, 2006). At higher altitudes, ice charging—which is responsible for lightning in ordinary thunderstorms—becomes active if the volcanic plume rises well above the freezing level (approximately -20°C), creating a mixed-phase region of ice crystals, soft hail, and supercooled liquid water (Behnke et al., 2013; Van Eaton et al., 2020). Once the particles undergo either or both of these charging mechanisms, they accumulate in oppositely charged regions due to turbulent flow and gravitational separation of particles based on their different sizes and settling speeds (Behnke et al., 2013). Charge separation builds an electric field until it exceeds the local breakdown threshold of surrounding air, resulting in lightning discharges."
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