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    "en": "Ballistics (Volcanic)"
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    "en": "Ballistics comprise fragments of magma and old (i.e., pre-existing) rocks ejected during an explosive eruption at variable velocity and angle on cannon ball-like trajectories; they are not entrained within the volcanic plume and are dispersed in proximity to the vent (typically 5 km) (adapted from Biass et al., 2016 and Bonadonna et al., 2021). <br /> <p>Biass, S., J.-L. Falcone, C. Bonadonna, F. Di Traglia, M. Pistolesi, M. Riso and P. Lestuzzi, 2016. Great Balls of Fire: A probabilistic approach to quantify the hazard related to ballistics – A case study at La Foss volcano, Vulcano Island, Italy. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 325:1-14.</p>"
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      "Ballistics may be a few centimetres to several metres in diameter. In most cases, the range of ballistics is a few hundred metres to 5 km, but they can be thrown to distances over 10 km in the most powerful explosions (Blong, 1984). Some blocks and bombs (i.e., tephra clasts >64 mm) can also be entrained within the volcanic plume and sedimented at larger distances than ballistics (Osman et al., 2019). Fragments of all sizes generated during fragmentation of magma and lava are also known as ‘pyroclasts’ whether they travel through the atmosphere or are directly entrained in lateral moving flows. Various analytical and numerical models have been developed that forecast ballistic dispersal (e.g., Fitzgerald et al., 2014; Biass et al., 2016). Primary hazards. The high kinetic energies of ballistics when they land makes them hazardous to people, buildings, infrastructure and other assets. Ballistics may be ejected at over 300 m/s but slow down during flight, with terminal velocities typically <150 m/s (Walker et al., 1971). Impact energy (kinetic energy at the moment of impact) is strongly controlled by the size of a ballistic because this limits both its terminal velocity and mass (Williams et al., 2017). Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia et al. (2012) modelled impact energies of ballistics 0.2–0.6 m in diameter during small explosive eruptions (VEI 2–3) to be up to 106 J, well over the threshold required to penetrate reinforced concrete slabs (Jenkins et al., 2014). Fragments of lava can be over 1100°C so, although they cool during flight, they may retain sufficient thermal energy on landing to burn certain building materials or other flammable materials (Vanderkluysen et al., 2012). Secondary hazards. Ballistics may cause indirect fatalities and damage owing to the collapse of buildings (mostly roofs) or damage to infrastructure (power, roads). Hot ballistics can start fires if falling on ignitable material (e.g., dry vegetation, wooden structures). Intense volcanic explosions that generate ballistics may cause shock and infrasonic waves in the atmosphere, which can shatter windows and damage delicate equipment (e.g., electronic doors) at distances of several kilometres from the volcano. Ballistics and other loose fragmentary material may be remobilised in lahars or landslides."
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