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    "en": "Black Carbon (Brown Clouds)"
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    "en": "Black carbon refers to the absorbing components of soot, often defined using elemental carbon and some condensed organics. Black carbon is an important part of the combustion product commonly referred to as soot. Black carbon in indoor environments is largely due to cooking with biofuels such as wood, dung and crop residue. Outdoors, it is due to fossil fuel combustion (diesel and coal), open biomass burning (associated with deforestation and crop residue burning), and cooking with biofuels (Ramanathan and Carmichael, 2008). <br /> <p>Ramanathan, V. and G. Carmichael, 2008. Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon. Nature Geoscience, 1:221-227.</p>"
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      "Black carbon is the sooty black material emitted from gas and diesel engines, coal-fired power plants, and other sources that burn fossil fuel. It comprises a significant proportion of atmospheric particulate matter or PM, which is an air pollutant (US EPA, 2019). Elevated black carbon concentrations in areas with high solar radiation are a major contributor to the so-called ‘brown clouds’ covering large regions, for instance in Asia. Brown clouds have led to dimming of the Earth’s surface, warming of the atmosphere and perturbation of the hydrological cycle, possibly affecting the monsoon (WMO, 2009). Black carbon is the product of incomplete combustion of fuels and can be analysed by means of different methodologies. When its light-absorbing properties are measured, soot is referred to as black carbon. When its concentration is measured by thermal-optical techniques, soot is known as elemental carbon (Popovicheva et al., 2010). Despite intensive efforts in recent decades, no widely accepted standard measurement method exists for determining black carbon or light-absorbing carbon. Real-time black carbon measurements can be performed using optical methods, which measure the absorption of light through a filter collecting airborne particles (Ahmed et al., 2010)."
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