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    "en": "Harmful Algal Blooms"
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    "en": "Harmful algal blooms result from noxious and/or toxic algae that cause direct and indirect negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems, coastal resources, and human health (Kudela et al., 2015). <br /> <p>Kudela, R., E. Berdalet, S. Bernard, M. Burford, L. Fernand, S. Lu, S. Roy, G. Usup, P. Tester, R. Magnien, D. Anderson, A. Cembella, M. Chinain, G. Hallegraeff, B. Reguera, A. Zingone, H. Enevoldsen and E. Urban, 2015. <a href=\"https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000233419\">Harmful Algal Blooms. A scientific summary for policy makers</a>. Accessed 11 October 2020.</p>"
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      "Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are present in nearly all aquatic environments (freshwater, brackish, marine), as naturally occurring phenomena (Kudela et al., 2015). Many HABs are increasing in severity and frequency, and biogeographical range. Causes are complex, but in some cases can be attributed to climate change and human impacts, including eutrophication, habitat modification, and human-mediated introduction of exogenous species (Kudela et al., 2015). Photosynthetic algae support healthy aquatic ecosystems and form the base of the food web, fixing carbon and producing oxygen. Under certain circumstances, some species can form high-biomass and/or toxic proliferations of cells (or ‘blooms’), thereby causing harm to aquatic ecosystems, including plants and animals, and to humans via direct exposure to water-borne toxins or by toxic seafood consumption. Ecosystem damage by high-biomass blooms may include disruption of food webs, fish-killing by gill damage, or contribution to low oxygen ‘dead-zones’ after bloom degradation. Some HAB species also produce potent natural chemicals (toxins) that can persist in the water or enter the food web, leading to illness or death of aquatic animals and/or human seafood consumers (Kudela et al., 2015). Even non-toxic algal blooms can have devastating impacts when they lead to kills of fish and invertebrates by generating anoxic conditions. Some algal species, although non-toxic to humans, can produce exudates that cause damage to the delicate gill tissues of fish (such as the raphidophytes Chattonella, Heterosigma, and dinoflagellates Karenia, Karlodinium). Aquaculture stocks (caged fish, molluscs, crustaceans) are trapped and, thus, can suffer devastating mortalities, which could lead to economic and food losses, and may eventually became a food security issue (FAO and WHO, 2020). Of greatest concern to human society are algal species that produce potent neurotoxins that can find their way through shellfish and fish to human consumers, where they cause a variety of gastrointestinal and neurological illnesses (FAO, 2012)."
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