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    "en": "Aquifer Recharge (Systems Failure/Outages)"
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    "en": "An aquifer is a water-bearing rock that readily transmits water to wells and springs. It can be recharged either naturally (precipitation including rainfall or snow) or artificially (e.g., pumped river recharge via wells). Failure or outage can be due to derogation, well failure or contamination (USGS, no date). <br /> <p>USGS, no date. <a href=\"https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/aquifers-and-groundwater?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects\">Aquifers and Groundwater. United States Geological Survey (USGS)</a>. Accessed 20 October 2020.</p>"
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      "Groundwater is a finite but renewable resource. The amount of available groundwater is limited by the porosity and permeability of the aquifer, but it can be renewed by meteoric water or artificial recharge. Aquifers may be unconfined or confined. While the water table in an unconfined aquifer will be in hydraulic continuity with adjacent water courses, a confined aquifer may be isolated from adjacent watercourses by a capping of lower permeability strata. Consequently, meteoric recharge to unconfined aquifers is more direct and generally, depending on the thickness of the unsaturated zone, more rapid than to confined aquifers. Groundwater abstraction via water wells causes a reduction in the water table that is referred to as a cone of depression. Cones of depression are rarely truly cone shaped; the shape being influenced by aquifer permeability, which is rarely isotropic. If groundwater abstraction exceeds recharge, over-abstraction will result in aquifer depletion and potentially outages of supply. Outages can also result from damage to the abstraction well. This could be due to physical damage, for example, pipe fracture or physical blocking by a trapped object, such as a jammed pump. Alternatively, it might occur because of clogging of the permeable part of the well, most likely due to a form of geochemical precipitation. Derogation of supply can also be caused by abstraction from neighbouring parts of an aquifer, either for potable supply or dewatering for mineral extraction or construction. Physical changes to an aquifer and its permeability can be brought about by earthquake activity. More commonly, groundwater infrastructure may be prone to rupture or damage by ground shaking induced by earthquake or volcanic activity (US EPA, 2020). Groundwater contamination can result from surface or sub-surface contaminants resulting from poor waste management, industry, mining and agriculture. Aquifer vulnerability to contamination reflects the extent of lower permeability materials that cover/ protect the aquifer. Potential contaminants include a very wide range of natural (volcanic) or anthropogenic chemical contaminants, as well as biological contaminants, such as Cryptosporidium (a microscopic parasite; Morris and Foster, 2000) and saline intrusion (USGS, no date)."
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