Illiyas, F., S. Mani, A. Pradeepkumar and K. Mohan, 2013. Human stampedes during religious festivals: a comparative review of mass gathering emergencies in India. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 5:10-18.
" }, "editorialNote": { "en": [ "source:UNDRR HIPS" ] }, "scopeNote": { "en": [ "With population growth and a constant increase in human travels, mass gatherings are becoming more frequent and attract increasing numbers of participants (Johansson et al., 2012). Mass gatherings can be defined as a concentration of people at a specific location for a specific purpose over a set period of time, and which has the potential to strain the planning and response resources of the country or the community (WHO, 2015). Mass gatherings are either spontaneous, such as at train stations during rush hour (Johansson et al., 2012) or are planned, such as at sport, cultural, religious, or political events (WHO, 2015). The Hajj pilgrimage in Saudi Arabia and the Kumbh Mela in India are the biggest regular mass gatherings globally, bringing millions of pilgrims together (Ahmed et al., 2006; Illiyas et al., 2013). Mass gatherings may affect health in different ways and crowd disasters may occur, including the collapse of infrastructure, fire incidents, terrorist attacks, violence riots, and human stampedes (Soomaroo and Murray, 2012; WHO, 2015; Still, 2019). Stampedes are often described as the “disruption of the orderly movement of crowds…leading to injuries and fatalities” (Illiyas et al., 2013), often “in response to a perceived danger, loss of physical space”, or “a will to attain something seen as gratifying” (Ngai et al., 2009; Burkle et al., 2011; Illiyas et al., 2013). They carry high mortality rates and are, besides heat-related illnesses, the most common cause of mortality in mass gatherings (Steffen et al., 2012; Still, 2019). Most human stampede casualties result from traumatic asphyxia caused by external compression of the thorax and/or upper abdomen, resulting in complete or partial cessation of respiration. It has been reported that significant compression forces can be present with even moderate crowds; forces of up to 4500 N (1000 lb) can be generated by just six to seven people pushing in a single direction with forces large enough to bend steel railings (Ngai et al., 2009). Although survivors of human stampedes and autopsy reports suggest traumatic asphyxia as the primary cause of death, other mechanisms have been considered, including myocardial infarction, direct crushing injury to intrathoracic or intraabdominal organs, head injury, and neck compression. All these mechanisms are possible; however, little actual supportive evidence exists. It has been concluded from autopsy findings that “people who succumb in these scenarios typically die (standing up) in a vertical position” due to compression force and “do not collapse to the floor until after the crowd density and pressure have been relieved. Compressive forces applied front to back or vice versa resulted in ventilatory failure, whereas those experiencing compressive forces from side to side were spared, presumably because chest expansion was not compromised to the same extent” (Ngai et al., 2009). The full spectrum of injuries – including fractures, dislocations, and other mechanical injuries – may be expected. Among survivors, many may suffer from posttraumatic stress, grief, or survivor guilt and require psychological counselling or intervention (Ngai et al., 2009)." ] }, "broader": { "id": "http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ecccbc3a-8dd7-4000-8785-4391407fae2c", "prefLabel": { "en": "Health" } }, "inScheme": [ { "id": "http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/", "title": { "en": "Climate Connectivity Taxonomy" } } ], "inSchemeAll": [ { "id": "http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/" } ], "@context": { "@version": 1.1, "id": "@id", "type": "@type", "@vocab": "http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#", "xsd": "http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#", "dct": "http://purl.org/dc/terms/", "dc": "http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/", "schema": "https://schema.org/", "vann": "http://purl.org/vocab/vann/", "ldp": "http://www.w3.org/ns/ldp#", "owl": "http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#", "title": { "@id": "dct:title", "@container": "@language" }, "dc:title": { "@id": "dc:title", "@container": "@language" }, "dc:description": { "@id": "dc:description", "@container": "@language" }, "description": { "@id": "dct:description", "@container": "@language" }, "license": { "@id": "dct:license", "@container": "@language" }, "issued": { "@id": "dct:issued", "@type": "xsd:date" }, "created": { "@id": "dct:created", "@type": "xsd:date" }, "modified": { "@id": "dct:modified", "@type": "xsd:date" }, "creator": "dct:creator", "publisher": "dct:publisher", "preferredNamespacePrefix": "vann:preferredNamespacePrefix", "preferredNamespaceUri": "vann:preferredNamespaceUri", "isBasedOn": "schema:isBasedOn", "source": "dct:source", "prefLabel": { "@container": "@language" }, "altLabel": { "@container": [ "@language", "@set" ] }, "hiddenLabel": { "@container": [ "@language", "@set" ] }, "definition": { "@container": "@language" }, "note": { "@container": [ "@language", "@set" ] }, "changeNote": { "@container": [ "@language", "@set" ] }, "editorialNote": { "@container": [ "@language", "@set" ] }, "historyNote": { "@container": [ "@language", "@set" ] }, "scopeNote": { "@container": [ "@language", "@set" ] }, "notation": { "@container": "@set" }, "example": { "@container": "@language" }, "narrower": { "@container": "@set" }, "related": { "@container": "@set" }, "relatedMatch": { "@container": "@set" }, "narrowerTransitive": { "@container": "@set" }, "broaderTransitive": { "@container": "@set" }, "broadMatch": { "@container": "@set" }, "narrowMatch": { "@container": "@set" }, "closeMatch": { "@container": "@set" }, "exactMatch": { "@container": "@set" }, "hasTopConcept": { "@container": "@set" }, "inScheme": { "@container": "@set" }, "topConceptOf": { "@container": "@set" }, "deprecated": { "@id": "owl:deprecated", "@type": "xsd:boolean" }, "isReplacedBy": { "@id": "dct:isReplacedBy", "@container": "@set" } } }