Source: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d14cf727-3257-460c-9c58-3b44fc8dfc37","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved irrigation efficiency"},"definition":{"en":"\"Soil moisture is the component of the water cycle that is accessible for the roots of plants. Irrigation is the most widely used way to combat the soil water deficiency. Examples could include:\n · Modern pressurised systems (e.g. drip and sprinkler irrigation)\n · Deficit irrigation (irrigation below full crop-water requirements) to maximise production per unit of water consumed. \n · Improved irrigation timing based on improved weather forecasting, hydrological monitoring, or early warning.\n It can be complemented by other water saving options (e.g. water reuse). If renewable energy (e.g. solar power pumps) is used, water saving also combines with climate change mitigation.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/285a1044-4cb4-47bc-96a9-921f8c63faf1","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved livestock infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"This option focuses on sustainable infrastructure that can improve animal well- being, against heat stress, based on increasing shading, fogging and fanning. Shade can be increased through creation of artificial structures for shade, using efficient materials (i.e. shade cloth, or steel roof). Solar panels can also represent a shading source contributing to the generation of renewable energy.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73aaa56e-7ed0-427a-bec1-98ccdc0a7d73","prefLabel":{"en":"Integrating adaptation into drought and water conservation plans"},"definition":{"en":"\"Drought risks are usually addressed by drought management plans and water conservation plans or by combined plans that incorporate both together. Drought management plans aim to prevent and mitigate the impact of droughts on the environment, society and the economy. A water conservation plan aims to reduce consumption, minimise loss and waste, improve efficiency and improve water recycling and reuse. They become adaptation measures if they include consideration of future climate scenarios and projected impacts.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d7128ed1-1431-4738-9905-4b46114498ad","prefLabel":{"en":"Parametric Insurance"},"definition":{"en":"\"Parametric insurance covers the probability of a predefined extreme event happening, instead of indemnifying the actual loss incurred (A pay-out amount in the case of the policy being triggered is determined in advance). These polices provide coverage for circumstances that were previously uninsurable. These policies therefore help in closing protection gaps for farmers and others in the global agri-food chain. It also provides certainty on the payout instead of having to justify the claim. \n \n An independent, third-party source, providing the relevant information, is a crucial requirement for the parametric cover as the entire pay-out is based on this data. This removes any potential conflicts of interest and provides transparency to customers on the data used and the reliability of the product.\""}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f52f5a0d-fdf3-402f-8cd7-379047207c07","prefLabel":{"en":"Precision agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"Precision agriculture is an umbrella term for using modern data-driven technologies for growing crops. It provides an improved understanding of the spatial demands of a particular agricultural area, which can be coupled with highly accurate decision support tools and early warning systems. By optimising the use of water, chemicals and energy, precision agriculture reduces the sector’s vulnerability to climate change. Using precision technologies reduce environmental degradation, and saves water and energy, resulting in lower emissions and costs.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0e102e6d-f158-40c5-a67e-057df47c5a1b","prefLabel":{"en":"Use of adapted crops and varieties"},"definition":{"en":"\"The use of adapted crops and varieties (either annual or perennial) helps to reduce the negative impacts of climate change, providing higher or stable crop yields and farmer incomes due to the better adaptability of the crops to the environment in which they are grown and the increased resilience of cropping systems to climate-related risks. \n \n Introducing new crops or varieties, or bringing back heritage crops, leads to diversification of agricultural production, with positive effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Moreover, introducing the cultivation of adapted crops and varieties can improve soil carbon storage by accelerating atmospheric carbon sequestration\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d7db61e-9b48-4c2d-9766-9c09c358eb72","prefLabel":{"en":"Water Restrictions and Rationing"},"definition":{"en":"\"Water restrictions and ratioing are temporary low-cost measures that limit or restrict certain uses of water, for example irrigation of lawns, or filling swimming pools. Restrictions can limit volume and/or time when water can be used. Water rationing temporary suspends a water supply or reduces pressure. This ensures critically limited water supplies are distributed to preserve public health and safety. If measures are not complemented by behavioural change towards more conscious water use, water demand and use typically rise to previous levels once restrictions are removed.\n \n Due to climate change and in the case of persistent or recurrent water scarcity other measures should be preferred and maintained in the long-term, for example water saving measures to reduce water demand and innovative strategies to increase water supply through water reuse, such as rain water harvesting, grey-water recycling and desalination.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/57a05799-ded8-4172-b14b-b3f797f3d766","prefLabel":{"en":"Water reuse"},"definition":{"en":"The reuse of water reduces the pressure on water resources while preserving water security for human activities and for the functioning of ecosystems. Water reuse is increasingly applied for agricultural irrigation as it is a reliable source also during times of limited water availability. The use of nutrient-rich treated wastewater for agriculture may, in addition, lead to a reduction (or elimination) of fertilizer application or increased productivity and can also contribute to food security. Using treated wastewater can also help conserve groundwater if this is used for irrigation.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0a09b397-ce0b-4b30-9b5b-ca54112757bb","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation needs"},"definition":{"en":"The circumstances requiring action to ensure the safety of populations and the security of assets in response to climate impacts (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f4c5127f-7479-4d85-809d-c9a13b666229","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation opportunity"},"definition":{"en":"Factors that make it easier to plan and implement adaptation actions, that expand adaptation options, or that provide ancillary co-benefits (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9cc85853-63ac-4574-b0b3-a615c1b7e560","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation options"},"altLabel":{"en":["adaptation measures and actions"]},"definition":{"en":"The array of strategies and measures that are available and appropriate for addressing adaptation. They include a wide range of actions that can be categorised as structural, institutional, ecological or behavioural (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"example":{"en":"Adaptation options range from actions that build adaptive capacity (e.g. knowledge creation and sharing of information, creating supportive institutional frameworks) or establish management systems and supportive mechanisms (e.g. better land management planning, insurance mechanisms) to adaptation actions implemented on the ground, e.g. physical or ecosystem-based measures."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Whereas the IPCC AR6 included 4 broad categories of options, the IPCC AR5 categorisation system identified three main categories (structural and physical options, social options and institutional options, see Chapter 14: Adaptation needs and options). Other developing approaches to adaptation options, considering “Representative Key Risks” and “System Transitions” can be found in the IPCC AR6 (see Chapter 17: Decision Making Options for Managing Risk).\n\nClimate-ADAPT, the EEA's platform for sharing and integrating information on adaptation, includes a category on adaptation options which contains descriptions of measures and actions that can be potentially implemented to improve adaptation to climate change. It also uses the term 'Adaptation Measures and Actions' in the resource catalogue."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/083e4731-556e-4012-810a-a961d2777362","prefLabel":{"en":"Agriculture"},"altLabel":{"en":["agricultures"]},"definition":{"en":"The production of plants and animals for human use, involving soil cultivation and the breeding and management of crops and livestock (adapted from GEMET). In the FAO Constitution, the term “agriculture” and its derivatives include fisheries, marine products, forestry, and primary forestry products (FAO, 2021)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Agriculture is predominantly affected by meteorological and hydrological hazards, geohazards, environmental hazards and biological hazards, although societal hazards such as armed conflict, and technological and chemical hazards also pose potential threats. The amount of loss and damage produced by a disaster depends on the speed and spatial scale at which a hazard interacts with vulnerability and pre-existing risks, along with the amount of exposed assets or livelihoods (FAO, 2023)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/497c943b-6699-4268-ae40-6a0be90ec119","prefLabel":{"en":"Agricultural biotechnology"},"altLabel":{"en":["agri-food biotech","plant biotechnology"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a016971c-9a4b-45f2-b94b-60ea70b06e7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Agroecology"},"definition":{"en":"‘The science and practice of applying ecological concepts, principles and knowledge (i.e., the interactions of, and explanations for, the diversity, abundance and activities of organisms) to the study, design and management of sustainable agroecosystems. It includes the roles of human beings as a central organism in agroecology by way of social and economic processes in farming systems. Agroecology examines the roles and interactions among all relevant biophysical, technical and socio-economic components of farming systems and their surrounding landscapes (IPBES, 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/709b290c-e442-4b4b-977d-3140ff42b6cd","prefLabel":{"en":"Agroforestry"},"definition":{"en":"Collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land-management units as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economical interactions between the different components. Agroforestry can also be defined as a dynamic, ecologically-based, natural resource management system that, through the integration of trees on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels (FAO, 2015a)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c037b86b-980d-4e0e-af70-9756eac819e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate-smart agriculture (CSA)"},"definition":{"en":"An approach to agriculture that aims to transform and reorient agricultural systems to effectively support development and ensure food security in a changing climate by sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, adapting and building resilience to climate change, and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible (FAO, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bd6b6b51-65c9-4757-83ff-db3696d1bbf2","prefLabel":{"en":"Conservation agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"A farming system that promotes minimum soil disturbance (e.g., by using no till practices), maintenance of a permanent soil cover and diversification of plant species. It aims to prevent land degradation and regenerate degraded lands by enhancing biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, that contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and improved and sustained crop production (FAO, 2016)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2605af32-4fdf-4847-ae26-4dcac5d01622","prefLabel":{"en":"Early warning systems (EWS)"},"definition":{"en":"The set of technical and institutional capacities to forecast, predict, and communicate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities, managed ecosystems, and organisations threatened by a hazard to prepare to act promptly and appropriately to reduce the possibility of harm or loss. Depending upon context, EWS may draw upon scientific and/or Indigenous knowledge, and other knowledge types. EWS are also considered for ecological applications, e.g., conservation, where the organisation itself is not threatened by hazard but the ecosystem under conservation is (e.g., coral bleaching alerts), in agriculture (e.g., warnings of heavy rainfall, drought, ground frost, and hailstorms) and in fisheries (e.g., warnings of storm, storm surge, and tsunamis) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Early warning systems are integral to disaster risk reduction as integrated systems of hazard monitoring, forecasting and prediction, disaster risk assessment, communication and preparedness activities systems and processes that enable individuals, communities, governments, businesses and others to take timely action to reduce disaster risks in advance of hazardous events (Adapted from: UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022).\n\nMulti-hazard early warning systems address several hazards and/or impacts of similar or different type in contexts where hazardous events may occur alone, simultaneously, cascadingly or cumulatively over time, and taking into account the potential interrelated effects. A multi-hazard early warning system with the ability to warn of one or more hazards increases the efficiency and consistency of warnings through coordinated and compatible mechanisms and capacities, involving multiple disciplines for updated and accurate hazards identification and monitoring for multiple hazards (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/49e5cf5f-ca0f-47f1-99a2-8ef7669f152a","prefLabel":{"en":"Improve water storage and retention"},"definition":{"en":"Improving water retention in landscapes and in farmland areas can help mitigate floods, alleviate drought, reduce soil erosion and improve the environmental quality of the system. Options include restoring natural water retention spaces (ponds, lakes, reservoirs), setting up flood control reservoirs or water impoundments, (typically with large capacity for storage and control of high water volumes) and terracing and contour ploughing (soil preparation to slow or prevent rapid surface runoff, allowing the water to percolate into the soil.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d14cf727-3257-460c-9c58-3b44fc8dfc37","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved irrigation efficiency"},"definition":{"en":"\"Soil moisture is the component of the water cycle that is accessible for the roots of plants. Irrigation is the most widely used way to combat the soil water deficiency. Examples could include:\n · Modern pressurised systems (e.g. drip and sprinkler irrigation)\n · Deficit irrigation (irrigation below full crop-water requirements) to maximise production per unit of water consumed. \n · Improved irrigation timing based on improved weather forecasting, hydrological monitoring, or early warning.\n It can be complemented by other water saving options (e.g. water reuse). If renewable energy (e.g. solar power pumps) is used, water saving also combines with climate change mitigation.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/285a1044-4cb4-47bc-96a9-921f8c63faf1","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved livestock infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"This option focuses on sustainable infrastructure that can improve animal well- being, against heat stress, based on increasing shading, fogging and fanning. Shade can be increased through creation of artificial structures for shade, using efficient materials (i.e. shade cloth, or steel roof). Solar panels can also represent a shading source contributing to the generation of renewable energy.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73aaa56e-7ed0-427a-bec1-98ccdc0a7d73","prefLabel":{"en":"Integrating adaptation into drought and water conservation plans"},"definition":{"en":"\"Drought risks are usually addressed by drought management plans and water conservation plans or by combined plans that incorporate both together. Drought management plans aim to prevent and mitigate the impact of droughts on the environment, society and the economy. A water conservation plan aims to reduce consumption, minimise loss and waste, improve efficiency and improve water recycling and reuse. They become adaptation measures if they include consideration of future climate scenarios and projected impacts.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d7128ed1-1431-4738-9905-4b46114498ad","prefLabel":{"en":"Parametric Insurance"},"definition":{"en":"\"Parametric insurance covers the probability of a predefined extreme event happening, instead of indemnifying the actual loss incurred (A pay-out amount in the case of the policy being triggered is determined in advance). These polices provide coverage for circumstances that were previously uninsurable. These policies therefore help in closing protection gaps for farmers and others in the global agri-food chain. It also provides certainty on the payout instead of having to justify the claim. \n \n An independent, third-party source, providing the relevant information, is a crucial requirement for the parametric cover as the entire pay-out is based on this data. This removes any potential conflicts of interest and provides transparency to customers on the data used and the reliability of the product.\""}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f52f5a0d-fdf3-402f-8cd7-379047207c07","prefLabel":{"en":"Precision agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"Precision agriculture is an umbrella term for using modern data-driven technologies for growing crops. It provides an improved understanding of the spatial demands of a particular agricultural area, which can be coupled with highly accurate decision support tools and early warning systems. By optimising the use of water, chemicals and energy, precision agriculture reduces the sector’s vulnerability to climate change. Using precision technologies reduce environmental degradation, and saves water and energy, resulting in lower emissions and costs.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/696ed25a-9c0c-4527-8daf-ca93a149a110","prefLabel":{"en":"Regenerative agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"A universally agreed definition of this relatively new farming approach has yet to be established, but regenerative agriculture broadly refers to the implementation of varying combinations of agricultural management practices, to ensure the continued restoration and enhancement of soil health, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, in conjunction with profitable agricultural production."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b9f6155f-ac33-4f03-94a9-3c908c023e9b","prefLabel":{"en":"Sustainable land management"},"definition":{"en":"The stewardship and use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ebeaeee0-17c6-45f3-bf3c-eed0b1817575","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban and peri-urban agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"The cultivation of crops and rearing of animals for food and other uses within and surrounding the boundaries of cities, including fisheries and forestry (EPRS, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0e102e6d-f158-40c5-a67e-057df47c5a1b","prefLabel":{"en":"Use of adapted crops and varieties"},"definition":{"en":"\"The use of adapted crops and varieties (either annual or perennial) helps to reduce the negative impacts of climate change, providing higher or stable crop yields and farmer incomes due to the better adaptability of the crops to the environment in which they are grown and the increased resilience of cropping systems to climate-related risks. \n \n Introducing new crops or varieties, or bringing back heritage crops, leads to diversification of agricultural production, with positive effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Moreover, introducing the cultivation of adapted crops and varieties can improve soil carbon storage by accelerating atmospheric carbon sequestration\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d7db61e-9b48-4c2d-9766-9c09c358eb72","prefLabel":{"en":"Water Restrictions and Rationing"},"definition":{"en":"\"Water restrictions and ratioing are temporary low-cost measures that limit or restrict certain uses of water, for example irrigation of lawns, or filling swimming pools. Restrictions can limit volume and/or time when water can be used. Water rationing temporary suspends a water supply or reduces pressure. This ensures critically limited water supplies are distributed to preserve public health and safety. If measures are not complemented by behavioural change towards more conscious water use, water demand and use typically rise to previous levels once restrictions are removed.\n \n Due to climate change and in the case of persistent or recurrent water scarcity other measures should be preferred and maintained in the long-term, for example water saving measures to reduce water demand and innovative strategies to increase water supply through water reuse, such as rain water harvesting, grey-water recycling and desalination.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/57a05799-ded8-4172-b14b-b3f797f3d766","prefLabel":{"en":"Water reuse"},"definition":{"en":"The reuse of water reduces the pressure on water resources while preserving water security for human activities and for the functioning of ecosystems. Water reuse is increasingly applied for agricultural irrigation as it is a reliable source also during times of limited water availability. The use of nutrient-rich treated wastewater for agriculture may, in addition, lead to a reduction (or elimination) of fertilizer application or increased productivity and can also contribute to food security. Using treated wastewater can also help conserve groundwater if this is used for irrigation.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/01042526-0e27-4345-904c-aa646e2260ae","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster risk reduction (DRR)"},"definition":{"en":"Denotes both a policy goal or objective, and the strategic and instrumental measures employed for anticipating future disaster risk; reducing existing exposure, hazard, or vulnerability; and improving resilience (IPCC AR6, 2023). The aim of disaster risk reduction is to prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development (Adapted from: UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/61bc1dd3-5ddf-4735-b2b3-b0dfd22b74c9","prefLabel":{"en":"Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR)"},"definition":{"en":"The sustainable management, conservation, and restoration of ecosystems to reduce disaster risk, with the aim to achieve sustainable and resilient development (Estrella and Saalismaa, 2013 in Gill et al., 2022)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9fe15001-7f02-4bd0-abeb-3780bd16fab6","prefLabel":{"en":"Nature-based solutions (NbS)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Environment-based solutions","Green-based solutions"]},"definition":{"en":"Actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits. (IUCN, 2016; IPCC AR6, 2023).\n\nSolutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions. (Towards an EU Research and Innovation Policy Agenda for Nature-based Solutions & Re-naturing Cities - Final Report of the Horizon 2020 Expert Group, European Commission, 2015).\n\nActions that work with and enhance nature so as to help people adapt to change and disasters. (Nature-based Solutions Initiative)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["‘Nature-Based Solutions’ (NBS), is a relatively new concept introduced specifically to promote nature as a means for providing solutions to climate mitigation and adaptation challenges (Cohen-Schacham et al., 2016, IUCN, 2012). Within Europe, policy-makers have integrated the concept into their current framework programme for research and innovation, ‘Horizon 2020’, providing a new narrative involving biodiversity and ecosystem services aligned with goals of innovation for growth and job creation (European Commission, 2015), and with a potential opening for transformational pathways towards sustainable societal development.\n\nThe term has already diversified. In the United States ‘nature-based infrastructure’ and ‘engineering with nature’ are more common as descriptions for actions to support resilience and to reduce flood risk, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and European Commission definitions of NBS provide alternate perspectives on its remit and purpose. For the European Commission, NBS is understood as actions that ‘aim to help societies address a variety of environmental, social and economic challenges in sustainable ways. They are actions which are inspired by, supported by or copied from nature’. The IUCN in framing NbS considers it an umbrella concept that covers a whole range of ecosystem-related approaches all of which address societal challenges. There is a sense that NBS still needs to be developed and discussed in relation to existing concepts to clarify their added value (Nesshover at al., 2017). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) also promotes benefits of NBS for disaster risk reduction (DRR) - explaining that Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction is becoming mainstream: Countries are increasingly becoming aware of nature-based solutions as a way to enhance climate change adaptation and mitigation, and are investing in conserving, restoring and managing ecosystems.\n\nDiscussions around nature-based solutions to DRR have surfaced in relatively few places, such as United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction's (UNISDR) 2015 Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, at IUCN and the Nature-based Solutions Initiative. Here, the strong link between disasters and ecosystems, and the importance of nature-based solutions for disaster risk reduction, as well as climate change adaptation are recognised. However in these circles such strategies are more commonly referred to as ecosystem-based DRR. Organisations using this concept (Eco-DRR) include the Partnership for Environment and Disaster Risk Reduction (PEDRR) which is part of UNISDR."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ab23c6b3-a91f-410e-b85b-788391ebd676","prefLabel":{"en":"Restoration"},"definition":{"en":"In the environmental context, restoration involves human interventions to assist the recovery of an ecosystem that has been previously degraded, damaged or destroyed."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6ae18619-346b-45de-8a92-ca78b80804fc","prefLabel":{"en":"Settlements"},"definition":{"en":"Places of concentrated human habitation. Settlements can range from isolated rural villages to urban regions with significant global influence. They can include formally planned and informal or illegal habitation and related infrastructure."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a19fef8d-7ce6-49d4-b1d9-7cd23dcd0266","prefLabel":{"en":"City region"},"definition":{"en":"The areal extent of an individual city's material associations and economic or political influence. The city region concept accepts that rural livelihoods and land uses can be incorporated within the functional activities of a city. This will include dormitory settlements, sources for critical inputs of water, some food, and waste disposal."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7a46aa5e-0e0d-4f86-a4c9-2fd03a6cf3e3","prefLabel":{"en":"Informal settlement"},"definition":{"en":"A term given to settlements or residential areas that by at least one criterion fall outside official rules and regulations. Most informal settlements have poor housing (with widespread use of temporary materials) and are developed on land that is occupied illegally with high levels of overcrowding. In most such settlements, provision for safe water, sanitation, drainage, paved roads and basic services is inadequate or lacking. The term ‘slum’ is often used for informal settlements, although it is misleading as many informal settlements develop into good quality residential areas, especially where governments support such development."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba22e253-5625-4567-8df9-e5088a58c463","prefLabel":{"en":"Peri-urban areas"},"definition":{"en":"Dynamic transition zones that have intense interaction between rural and urban economies, activities, households, and lifestyles. Neither fully rural or urban (Seto et al., 2010)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f91c32b9-3184-4640-9c36-cdd1899db7a1","prefLabel":{"en":"Planned relocation (of humans)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Resettlement"]},"definition":{"en":"A form of human mobility response in the face of sea level rise and related impacts. Planned relocation is typically initiated, supervised and implemented from national to local level and involves small communities and individual assets but may also involve large populations. Also termed resettlement, managed retreat or managed realignment."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2aa769a9-07f2-4f39-bfd9-70b961fd59e6","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban"},"definition":{"en":"The categorisation of areas as 'urban' by government statistical departments is generally based either on population size, population density, economic base, provision of services, or some combination of the above. Urban systems are networks and nodes of intensive interaction and exchange including capital, culture, and material objects. Urban areas exist on a continuum with rural areas and tend to exhibit higher levels of complexity, higher populations and population density, intensity of capital investment, and a preponderance of secondary (processing) and tertiary (service) sector industries. The extent and intensity of these features varies significantly within and between urban areas. Urban places and systems are open with much movement and exchange between more rural areas as well as other urban regions. Urban areas can be globally interconnected facilitating rapid flows between them – of capital investment, of ideas and culture, human migration, and disease."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d2bc4537-5067-4c4f-9b51-d0127923e41e","prefLabel":{"en":"Water management"},"altLabel":{"en":["local water management","optimized water management","water management plan","water use management"]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/49e5cf5f-ca0f-47f1-99a2-8ef7669f152a","prefLabel":{"en":"Improve water storage and retention"},"definition":{"en":"Improving water retention in landscapes and in farmland areas can help mitigate floods, alleviate drought, reduce soil erosion and improve the environmental quality of the system. Options include restoring natural water retention spaces (ponds, lakes, reservoirs), setting up flood control reservoirs or water impoundments, (typically with large capacity for storage and control of high water volumes) and terracing and contour ploughing (soil preparation to slow or prevent rapid surface runoff, allowing the water to percolate into the soil.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73aaa56e-7ed0-427a-bec1-98ccdc0a7d73","prefLabel":{"en":"Integrating adaptation into drought and water conservation plans"},"definition":{"en":"\"Drought risks are usually addressed by drought management plans and water conservation plans or by combined plans that incorporate both together. Drought management plans aim to prevent and mitigate the impact of droughts on the environment, society and the economy. A water conservation plan aims to reduce consumption, minimise loss and waste, improve efficiency and improve water recycling and reuse. They become adaptation measures if they include consideration of future climate scenarios and projected impacts.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d7db61e-9b48-4c2d-9766-9c09c358eb72","prefLabel":{"en":"Water Restrictions and Rationing"},"definition":{"en":"\"Water restrictions and ratioing are temporary low-cost measures that limit or restrict certain uses of water, for example irrigation of lawns, or filling swimming pools. Restrictions can limit volume and/or time when water can be used. Water rationing temporary suspends a water supply or reduces pressure. This ensures critically limited water supplies are distributed to preserve public health and safety. If measures are not complemented by behavioural change towards more conscious water use, water demand and use typically rise to previous levels once restrictions are removed.\n \n Due to climate change and in the case of persistent or recurrent water scarcity other measures should be preferred and maintained in the long-term, for example water saving measures to reduce water demand and innovative strategies to increase water supply through water reuse, such as rain water harvesting, grey-water recycling and desalination.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b0097e5c-a7f6-4eac-b087-a665df810256","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation tipping points"},"definition":{"en":"An adaptation tipping point (ATP) is the moment when the magnitude of change is such that a current management strategy can no longer meet its objectives. As a result, adaptive management is needed to prevent or postpone these ATPs (Nanda et al, 2018 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/85e57a67-253f-4257-9019-146878e74daf","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptive capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities or to respond to consequences (MA, 2005 in IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/11451a2e-b137-455b-9793-ab1cc8a7c638","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptive capacity benefit"},"definition":{"en":"An intervention provides an adaptive capacity benefit if it increases the ability of a person, population, or system to manage climate impacts or realize an opportunity emerging from climate change, including by transforming how and where they live. This can happen even if that population, person, or resource remains exposed to and very sensitive to a climate impact, though typically increasing adaptive capacity facilitates productive efforts to lower exposure and sensitivity.Source: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"},"example":{"en":"- Investments in extension services often increase farmer knowledge and access to agricultural resources. In places where the climate is marked by increasing variability, extension services can help farmers understand how to interpret seasonal forecasts such that they select appropriate seed varieties for likely seasonal conditions. In this example, the extension services provide an adaptive capacity benefit, while the seeds the farmers learn how to access provide a sensitivity benefit. \n- Investment in local planning capacity can yield improved zoning and land management in urban areas, allowing municipalities to avert impacts like flooding by reducing the land use driver of this challenge. Here, the investment in improved planning is an adaptive capacity benefit, which yields an exposure benefit by improving the quality of zoning and land management to reduce flooding.\nSource: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73708d2d-9c93-45f4-b139-c1423206866e","prefLabel":{"en":"Autonomous adaptation"},"altLabel":{"en":["Spontaneous adaptation"]},"definition":{"en":"Adaptation in response to experienced climate and its effects, without planning explicitly or consciously focused on addressing climate change. Also referred to as spontaneous adaptation (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Different approaches instead consider reactive adaptation, i.e. a response to the changing climate experienced rather than a pro-active planned approach, as well as non-governmental planned adaptation (i.e. anticipatory adaption undertaken by other organisations, e.g. private sector) (CCRA3 Technical Team, 2021)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42eb89b8-2c9d-4cd6-8187-50cfc330dd9c","prefLabel":{"en":"Community-based adaptation"},"definition":{"en":"Local, community-driven adaptation. Community-based adaptation focuses attention on empowering and promoting the adaptive capacity of communities. It is an approach that takes context, culture, knowledge, agency, and preferences of communities as strengths (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/67986d03-831d-4005-97f5-6612e50f924a","prefLabel":{"en":"Coping"},"definition":{"en":"The use of available skills, resources and opportunities to address, manage and overcome adverse conditions, with the aim of achieving basic functioning of people, institutions, organisations and systems in the short to medium term (UNISDR, 2009; IPCC, 2012a)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/71bbc428-669e-41af-b75c-37d1522ca54f","prefLabel":{"en":"Coping capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of people, institutions, organisations and systems, using available skills, values, beliefs, resources, and opportunities, to address, manage and overcome adverse conditions in the short to medium term (UNISDR, 2009; IPCC, 2012)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the context of disaster risk reduction, 'coping capacity' can refer to the ability of people, organizations and systems, using available skills and resources, to manage adverse conditions, risk or disasters. The capacity to cope requires continuing awareness, resources and good management, both in normal times as well as during disasters or adverse conditions. Coping capacities contribute to the reduction of disaster risks (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d03ae38f-3bf5-4d44-963e-375065b10bf7","prefLabel":{"en":"Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA)"},"definition":{"en":"The use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change, and of ecosystem management activities to increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability of people and ecosystems to climate change (Adapted from: CBD, 2009 in Gill et al., 2022; Campbell et al., 2009 in IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Ecosystem-based Adaptation, commonly referred to as EbA, is linked with Nature-based Solutions but places more emphasis on specifically increasing the resilience of ecosystems. In this way EbA also links with Conservation and raises awareness of as well as utilising Ecosystem services."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6b3dbced-9603-477d-9f15-6b69cd543977","prefLabel":{"en":"Enabling conditions (for adaptation and mitigation options)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Enablers"]},"definition":{"en":"Conditions that enhance the feasibility of adaptation and mitigation options. Enabling conditions include finance, technological innovation, strengthening policy instruments, institutional capacity, multi-level governance, and changes in human behaviour and lifestyles."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ad7dcd89-d498-434f-9426-6b351d357b94","prefLabel":{"en":"Evolutionary adaptation"},"definition":{"en":"The process whereby a species or population becomes better able to live in a changing environment through the selection of heritable traits. Biologists usually distinguish evolutionary adaptation from acclimatisation, with the latter occurring within an organism’s lifetime (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84d6c3a2-2d34-4245-afad-fc2eb9380623","prefLabel":{"en":"Global adaptation governance"},"definition":{"en":"Global adaptation governance occurs when state and non-state actors in the global (including transnational) sphere authoritatively and intentionally shape the actions of constituents toward climate change adaptation as a public goal (Persson, 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4c3fa24b-388a-41cc-9dbd-6bce2d9a3f2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Global goal on adaptation"},"definition":{"en":"Much like the 1.5°C and 2°C temperature goals set out in Article 2 of the Paris Agreement, the global goal on adaptation is an aspiration that motivates climate action: “Parties hereby establish the global goal on adaptation of enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change, with a view to contributing to sustainable development and ensuring an adequate adaptation response in the context of the temperature goal referred to in Article 2.” (Article 7.1) Unlike the 1.5- and 2-degree targets, however, the global goal on adaptation is much more difficult to measure and assess, as there are no universally accepted definitions for climate adaptation, or agreed-upon metrics for measuring resilience built or risks reduced (Benzie et al., 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/237d3b53-8e22-4b85-bf03-c501da815b0c","prefLabel":{"en":"Incremental adaptation"},"definition":{"en":"Adaptation that maintains the essence and integrity of a system or process at a given scale (Park et al., 2012). In some cases, incremental adaptation can accrue to result in transformational adaptation (Tàbara et al., 2019; Termeer et al., 2017). Incremental adaptations to change in climate are understood as extensions of actions and behaviours that already reduce the losses or enhance the benefits of natural variations in extreme weather/climate events (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cbdd86be-91a4-4639-9bcf-a3b0c39d614e","prefLabel":{"en":"Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation)"},"definition":{"en":"Actions that may lead to increased risk of adverse climate-related outcomes, including via increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, increased or shifted vulnerability to climate change, more inequitable outcomes, or diminished welfare, now or in the future. Most often, maladaptation is an unintended consequence."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8aef133f-b5f8-4d0f-b4d0-b66d864e9e95","prefLabel":{"en":"Resilience"},"definition":{"en":"The capacity of interconnected social, economic and ecological systems to cope with a hazardous event, trend or disturbance, responding or reorganising in ways that maintain their essential function, identity and structure. Resilience is a positive attribute when it maintains capacity for adaptation, learning and/or transformation (Arctic Council, 2016; IPCC AR6, 2023).\n\nThe ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform, and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions through risk management (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e4d8905c-39a7-4925-9650-d0441cba4df4","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate resilient development"},"definition":{"en":"In the IPCC's WGII report, climate resilient development refers to the process of implementing greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation measures to support sustainable development for all."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a14a2e29-5905-454f-8d70-c844f2ddda88","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilience"},"altLabel":{"en":["disaster resilient"]},"definition":{"en":"The ability of a system, community or society exposed to one or more hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from disasters in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of essential basic structures and functions (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Infrastructure resilience depends on the resilience of societal systems, governance systems, ecological systems, etc. See also “Disaster resilient infrastructure”. \n\nAn associated phrase is \"\"adaptive capacity\"\" which is the ability of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to respond to consequences. \n\nTransformative capacity is the ability of individuals and organisations to transform themselves and their society in a deliberate, conscious way. In the context of resilient infrastructure, transformation may manifest in the form of progressive governance arrangements, updating of codes and standards, and formulation of policies that enable resilience approaches in infrastructure development. See also “Organizational learning” and “Feedback loops”."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e29da928-b226-426c-8817-766e05c79f2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilience investment"},"definition":{"en":"Investment tools, resources, and processes that aim to avoid, reduce and transfer risk, mitigate the impact of disaster, and fund resilience building, recovery and reconstruction (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster resilience investment includes investments made in corrective, prospective, reactive, and compensatory DRM actions. This covers expenditures towards disaster and disaster risk prevention (avoidance), mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, reconstruction, and overall resilience building. \n\nDisaster resilience investment depends on disaster resilience finance, a notion equivalent to Disaster Risk Finance (DRF). \n\nInvestment comprises expenditures in hard infrastructure as well as in nature-based solutions; the promotion of behavioral change, including the development, enactment and control over laws, norms, and technical standards; and learning and capacity building.\n\nDisaster resilience investment is to date dominated by immediate pre-impact and post-impact response, reconstruction and recovery activities. Numerous mechanisms exist for this including emergency funds, insurance and reinsurance, contingent credits, loans and national budgeting reallocations. Pre-impact corrective and prospective disaster risk reduction and avoidance investments are a very small part of total investment. A permanent but not yet heeded call exists for very much increased disaster risk mitigation and prevention spending. \nAdaptation financing would be an equivalent seen from the angle of climate change investments. \n\nAs opposed to humanitarian financing sources and competition for these, an increase in disaster risk reduction and adaptation investment must come from alternative sector and territorial sustainable development sources. This requires a far greater involvement of development actors in the DRM theme and the recognition of the social construction of disaster risk, emanating from failed or skewed development processes."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e29da928-b226-426c-8817-766e05c79f2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilience investment"},"definition":{"en":"Investment tools, resources, and processes that aim to avoid, reduce and transfer risk, mitigate the impact of disaster, and fund resilience building, recovery and reconstruction (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster resilience investment includes investments made in corrective, prospective, reactive, and compensatory DRM actions. This covers expenditures towards disaster and disaster risk prevention (avoidance), mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, reconstruction, and overall resilience building. \n\nDisaster resilience investment depends on disaster resilience finance, a notion equivalent to Disaster Risk Finance (DRF). \n\nInvestment comprises expenditures in hard infrastructure as well as in nature-based solutions; the promotion of behavioral change, including the development, enactment and control over laws, norms, and technical standards; and learning and capacity building.\n\nDisaster resilience investment is to date dominated by immediate pre-impact and post-impact response, reconstruction and recovery activities. Numerous mechanisms exist for this including emergency funds, insurance and reinsurance, contingent credits, loans and national budgeting reallocations. Pre-impact corrective and prospective disaster risk reduction and avoidance investments are a very small part of total investment. A permanent but not yet heeded call exists for very much increased disaster risk mitigation and prevention spending. \nAdaptation financing would be an equivalent seen from the angle of climate change investments. \n\nAs opposed to humanitarian financing sources and competition for these, an increase in disaster risk reduction and adaptation investment must come from alternative sector and territorial sustainable development sources. This requires a far greater involvement of development actors in the DRM theme and the recognition of the social construction of disaster risk, emanating from failed or skewed development processes."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2953598f-d307-47b7-89f0-ba29026c56e5","prefLabel":{"en":"Resilience assessment"},"definition":{"en":"A qualitative and quantitative approach to determine the extent of resilience by analysing the potential risk and the existing capacity to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from the negative effects associated with a disaster in a timely and efficient manner (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Resilience assessment requires a listing of metrics that would vary based on infrastructure sector, scale, and geographic location."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/daa9bee2-936b-4cf6-9e75-0265f28d8be0","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic resilience"},"altLabel":{"en":["system resilience"]},"definition":{"en":"Property of an infrastructure system that manifests when the larger system is organized in such a way that it can provide agreed critical services (power, heat, communications, mobility, water, and waste management) despite the impacts on its constituent systems, networks and assets due to a variety of hazard(s) (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["\"Larger system\" may refer to transboundary, national or sub-national infrastructure depending on the jurisdiction."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/50932b67-038f-44ad-bee9-df0ef7544483","prefLabel":{"en":"Robustness"},"altLabel":{"en":["robust","robustness"]},"definition":{"en":"The inherent strength of an infrastructure asset or a system to withstand shocks and stresses that may be intrinsic or extrinsic in nature, without degradation or loss of functionality (DRI Lexicon, 2023).\n\nThe insensitivity of a system to future conditions and the ability to perform satisfactorily over a broad range of future conditions (Based on Beh et al. 2017 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["As an example, in climate modelling, \"robustness\" refers to the degree to which a climate model's predictions remain consistent and reliable across a variety of different model configurations, parameter settings, and even when using different types of models (Gluck, 2023)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c92e01c6-d47e-4403-8d0f-7ae26c20f31e","prefLabel":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management"},"definition":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management activities address and seek to avoid the development of new or increased disaster risks. They focus on addressing disaster risks that may develop in future if disaster risk reduction policies are not put in place (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Examples include well-designed and built resilient infrastructure, ensuring robustness of assets, planning for flexibility, safe failure, and redundancy in service provision. Feedback loops are critical for this purpose. See also “Feedback Loops”. In the context of resilient infrastructure, they focus on reducing risk."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/18fd0d89-5857-4611-a9c2-cd1dab92307b","prefLabel":{"en":"Transboundary adaptation"},"definition":{"en":"Though not yet defined under the UNFCCC nor by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), transboundary adaptation can be understood as adaptation planning that addresses the dependencies and interdependencies from a systems perspective when assessing risk and when developing options to manage both the rapid and slow-onset impacts of climate change (Nadin and Roberts, 2015)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d6bf7ecf-b4a6-469a-a1f6-dd63e36987bd","prefLabel":{"en":"Transformational adaptation"},"definition":{"en":"Adaptation that changes the fundamental attributes of a social-ecological system in anticipation of climate change and its impacts (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b3643f75-450b-4f1a-b96b-cd32a8d39d71","prefLabel":{"en":"Adverse side effects"},"definition":{"en":"The negative effects that a policy or measure aimed at one objective might have on other objectives, irrespective of the net effect on overall social welfare. Adverse side effects are often subject to uncertainty and depend on local circumstances and implementation practices, among other factors (IPCC AR5, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cae51e36-0268-4372-bab9-0a6af3ace089","prefLabel":{"en":"Agreement"},"definition":{"en":"In this report, the degree of agreement within the scientific body of knowledge on a particular finding is assessed based on multiple lines of evidence (e.g., mechanistic understanding, theory, data, models, expert judgement) and expressed qualitatively (Mastrandrea et al., 2010)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7cd498db-0fed-4775-8eb1-4d778b2b3c99","prefLabel":{"en":"Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU and FOLU/ LULUCF)"},"definition":{"en":"AFOLU plays a central role for food security and sustainable development. The main mitigation options within AFOLU involve one or more of three strategies: prevention of emissions to the atmosphere by conserving existing carbon pools in soils or vegetation or by reducing emissions of methane and nitrous oxide; sequestration—increasing the size of existing carbon pools and thereby extracting carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere; and substitution—substituting biological products for fossil fuels or energy-intensive products, thereby reducing CO2 emissions. Demand-side measures (e.g., reducing losses and wastes of food, changes in human diet, or changes in wood consumption) may also play a role.\n\nFOLU (Forestry and Other Land Use) — also referred to as LULUCF (Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry) — is the subset of AFOLU emissions and removals of greenhouse gases (GHGs) resulting from direct human-induced land use, land-use change, and forestry activities excluding agricultural emissions."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/083e4731-556e-4012-810a-a961d2777362","prefLabel":{"en":"Agriculture"},"altLabel":{"en":["agricultures"]},"definition":{"en":"The production of plants and animals for human use, involving soil cultivation and the breeding and management of crops and livestock (adapted from GEMET). In the FAO Constitution, the term “agriculture” and its derivatives include fisheries, marine products, forestry, and primary forestry products (FAO, 2021)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Agriculture is predominantly affected by meteorological and hydrological hazards, geohazards, environmental hazards and biological hazards, although societal hazards such as armed conflict, and technological and chemical hazards also pose potential threats. The amount of loss and damage produced by a disaster depends on the speed and spatial scale at which a hazard interacts with vulnerability and pre-existing risks, along with the amount of exposed assets or livelihoods (FAO, 2023)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/497c943b-6699-4268-ae40-6a0be90ec119","prefLabel":{"en":"Agricultural biotechnology"},"altLabel":{"en":["agri-food biotech","plant biotechnology"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a016971c-9a4b-45f2-b94b-60ea70b06e7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Agroecology"},"definition":{"en":"‘The science and practice of applying ecological concepts, principles and knowledge (i.e., the interactions of, and explanations for, the diversity, abundance and activities of organisms) to the study, design and management of sustainable agroecosystems. It includes the roles of human beings as a central organism in agroecology by way of social and economic processes in farming systems. Agroecology examines the roles and interactions among all relevant biophysical, technical and socio-economic components of farming systems and their surrounding landscapes (IPBES, 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/709b290c-e442-4b4b-977d-3140ff42b6cd","prefLabel":{"en":"Agroforestry"},"definition":{"en":"Collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land-management units as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economical interactions between the different components. Agroforestry can also be defined as a dynamic, ecologically-based, natural resource management system that, through the integration of trees on farms and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels (FAO, 2015a)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c037b86b-980d-4e0e-af70-9756eac819e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate-smart agriculture (CSA)"},"definition":{"en":"An approach to agriculture that aims to transform and reorient agricultural systems to effectively support development and ensure food security in a changing climate by sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, adapting and building resilience to climate change, and reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible (FAO, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bd6b6b51-65c9-4757-83ff-db3696d1bbf2","prefLabel":{"en":"Conservation agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"A farming system that promotes minimum soil disturbance (e.g., by using no till practices), maintenance of a permanent soil cover and diversification of plant species. It aims to prevent land degradation and regenerate degraded lands by enhancing biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, that contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and improved and sustained crop production (FAO, 2016)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2605af32-4fdf-4847-ae26-4dcac5d01622","prefLabel":{"en":"Early warning systems (EWS)"},"definition":{"en":"The set of technical and institutional capacities to forecast, predict, and communicate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities, managed ecosystems, and organisations threatened by a hazard to prepare to act promptly and appropriately to reduce the possibility of harm or loss. Depending upon context, EWS may draw upon scientific and/or Indigenous knowledge, and other knowledge types. EWS are also considered for ecological applications, e.g., conservation, where the organisation itself is not threatened by hazard but the ecosystem under conservation is (e.g., coral bleaching alerts), in agriculture (e.g., warnings of heavy rainfall, drought, ground frost, and hailstorms) and in fisheries (e.g., warnings of storm, storm surge, and tsunamis) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Early warning systems are integral to disaster risk reduction as integrated systems of hazard monitoring, forecasting and prediction, disaster risk assessment, communication and preparedness activities systems and processes that enable individuals, communities, governments, businesses and others to take timely action to reduce disaster risks in advance of hazardous events (Adapted from: UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022).\n\nMulti-hazard early warning systems address several hazards and/or impacts of similar or different type in contexts where hazardous events may occur alone, simultaneously, cascadingly or cumulatively over time, and taking into account the potential interrelated effects. A multi-hazard early warning system with the ability to warn of one or more hazards increases the efficiency and consistency of warnings through coordinated and compatible mechanisms and capacities, involving multiple disciplines for updated and accurate hazards identification and monitoring for multiple hazards (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/49e5cf5f-ca0f-47f1-99a2-8ef7669f152a","prefLabel":{"en":"Improve water storage and retention"},"definition":{"en":"Improving water retention in landscapes and in farmland areas can help mitigate floods, alleviate drought, reduce soil erosion and improve the environmental quality of the system. Options include restoring natural water retention spaces (ponds, lakes, reservoirs), setting up flood control reservoirs or water impoundments, (typically with large capacity for storage and control of high water volumes) and terracing and contour ploughing (soil preparation to slow or prevent rapid surface runoff, allowing the water to percolate into the soil.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d14cf727-3257-460c-9c58-3b44fc8dfc37","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved irrigation efficiency"},"definition":{"en":"\"Soil moisture is the component of the water cycle that is accessible for the roots of plants. Irrigation is the most widely used way to combat the soil water deficiency. Examples could include:\n · Modern pressurised systems (e.g. drip and sprinkler irrigation)\n · Deficit irrigation (irrigation below full crop-water requirements) to maximise production per unit of water consumed. \n · Improved irrigation timing based on improved weather forecasting, hydrological monitoring, or early warning.\n It can be complemented by other water saving options (e.g. water reuse). If renewable energy (e.g. solar power pumps) is used, water saving also combines with climate change mitigation.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/285a1044-4cb4-47bc-96a9-921f8c63faf1","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved livestock infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"This option focuses on sustainable infrastructure that can improve animal well- being, against heat stress, based on increasing shading, fogging and fanning. Shade can be increased through creation of artificial structures for shade, using efficient materials (i.e. shade cloth, or steel roof). Solar panels can also represent a shading source contributing to the generation of renewable energy.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73aaa56e-7ed0-427a-bec1-98ccdc0a7d73","prefLabel":{"en":"Integrating adaptation into drought and water conservation plans"},"definition":{"en":"\"Drought risks are usually addressed by drought management plans and water conservation plans or by combined plans that incorporate both together. Drought management plans aim to prevent and mitigate the impact of droughts on the environment, society and the economy. A water conservation plan aims to reduce consumption, minimise loss and waste, improve efficiency and improve water recycling and reuse. They become adaptation measures if they include consideration of future climate scenarios and projected impacts.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d7128ed1-1431-4738-9905-4b46114498ad","prefLabel":{"en":"Parametric Insurance"},"definition":{"en":"\"Parametric insurance covers the probability of a predefined extreme event happening, instead of indemnifying the actual loss incurred (A pay-out amount in the case of the policy being triggered is determined in advance). These polices provide coverage for circumstances that were previously uninsurable. These policies therefore help in closing protection gaps for farmers and others in the global agri-food chain. It also provides certainty on the payout instead of having to justify the claim. \n \n An independent, third-party source, providing the relevant information, is a crucial requirement for the parametric cover as the entire pay-out is based on this data. This removes any potential conflicts of interest and provides transparency to customers on the data used and the reliability of the product.\""}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f52f5a0d-fdf3-402f-8cd7-379047207c07","prefLabel":{"en":"Precision agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"Precision agriculture is an umbrella term for using modern data-driven technologies for growing crops. It provides an improved understanding of the spatial demands of a particular agricultural area, which can be coupled with highly accurate decision support tools and early warning systems. By optimising the use of water, chemicals and energy, precision agriculture reduces the sector’s vulnerability to climate change. Using precision technologies reduce environmental degradation, and saves water and energy, resulting in lower emissions and costs.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/696ed25a-9c0c-4527-8daf-ca93a149a110","prefLabel":{"en":"Regenerative agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"A universally agreed definition of this relatively new farming approach has yet to be established, but regenerative agriculture broadly refers to the implementation of varying combinations of agricultural management practices, to ensure the continued restoration and enhancement of soil health, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, in conjunction with profitable agricultural production."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b9f6155f-ac33-4f03-94a9-3c908c023e9b","prefLabel":{"en":"Sustainable land management"},"definition":{"en":"The stewardship and use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ebeaeee0-17c6-45f3-bf3c-eed0b1817575","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban and peri-urban agriculture"},"definition":{"en":"The cultivation of crops and rearing of animals for food and other uses within and surrounding the boundaries of cities, including fisheries and forestry (EPRS, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0e102e6d-f158-40c5-a67e-057df47c5a1b","prefLabel":{"en":"Use of adapted crops and varieties"},"definition":{"en":"\"The use of adapted crops and varieties (either annual or perennial) helps to reduce the negative impacts of climate change, providing higher or stable crop yields and farmer incomes due to the better adaptability of the crops to the environment in which they are grown and the increased resilience of cropping systems to climate-related risks. \n \n Introducing new crops or varieties, or bringing back heritage crops, leads to diversification of agricultural production, with positive effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Moreover, introducing the cultivation of adapted crops and varieties can improve soil carbon storage by accelerating atmospheric carbon sequestration\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d7db61e-9b48-4c2d-9766-9c09c358eb72","prefLabel":{"en":"Water Restrictions and Rationing"},"definition":{"en":"\"Water restrictions and ratioing are temporary low-cost measures that limit or restrict certain uses of water, for example irrigation of lawns, or filling swimming pools. Restrictions can limit volume and/or time when water can be used. Water rationing temporary suspends a water supply or reduces pressure. This ensures critically limited water supplies are distributed to preserve public health and safety. If measures are not complemented by behavioural change towards more conscious water use, water demand and use typically rise to previous levels once restrictions are removed.\n \n Due to climate change and in the case of persistent or recurrent water scarcity other measures should be preferred and maintained in the long-term, for example water saving measures to reduce water demand and innovative strategies to increase water supply through water reuse, such as rain water harvesting, grey-water recycling and desalination.\"\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/57a05799-ded8-4172-b14b-b3f797f3d766","prefLabel":{"en":"Water reuse"},"definition":{"en":"The reuse of water reduces the pressure on water resources while preserving water security for human activities and for the functioning of ecosystems. Water reuse is increasingly applied for agricultural irrigation as it is a reliable source also during times of limited water availability. The use of nutrient-rich treated wastewater for agriculture may, in addition, lead to a reduction (or elimination) of fertilizer application or increased productivity and can also contribute to food security. Using treated wastewater can also help conserve groundwater if this is used for irrigation.\nSource: Climate-ADAPT. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb92ecc5-c1af-40af-840a-207e05747bf0","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest"},"definition":{"en":"A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions of the term forest are in use throughout the world, reflecting wide differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure and economics. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest in the context of National GHG inventories, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC 2006, 2019; UNFCCC, 2021a, b).]"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3eb866d1-69a8-4a85-9e1f-5b8fdcc6ffc9","prefLabel":{"en":"Afforestation"},"definition":{"en":"Conversion to forest of land that historically has not contained forests. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC 2006, 2019; UNFCCC 2021a, b).]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b6a353d3-37cc-4c46-b144-0995fc4864e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Deforestation"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Deforestation is the conversion of forest to other land use independently of whether human-induced or not (FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Terms and Definitions FRA 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 188. Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has monitored the world’s forests at 5 to 10 year intervals since 1946. The recent Global Forest Resources Assessments have been produced every five years in an attempt to provide a consistent approach to describing the world’s forests and how they are changing (FAO, 2020a). Deforestation includes the permanent reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold. It also includes areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs, mining and urban areas. The term specifically excludes areas where the trees have been removed as a result of harvesting or logging, and where the forest is expected to regenerate naturally or with the aid of silvicultural measures. The term also includes areas where, for example, the impact of disturbance, over-utilisation or changing environmental conditions affects the forest to an extent that it cannot sustain a canopy cover above the 10% threshold (FAO, 2020b). Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates and contribute significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades (FAO, 2020a). Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990 (FAO, 2020a). Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest degradation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40% of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33% (FAO and UNEP, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1e82b983-8590-486c-96ca-335c3f4b231a","prefLabel":{"en":"Reforestation"},"definition":{"en":"Conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but that has been converted to some other use.[Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC, 2006, 2019; UNFCCC 2021a, b).]"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5e3d2439-7b45-4c8c-a262-6a5cfff34fcb","prefLabel":{"en":"Land use"},"definition":{"en":"The total of arrangements, activities and inputs applied to a parcel of land. The term land use is also used in the sense of the social and economic purposes for which land is managed (e.g., grazing, timber extraction, conservation and city dwelling). In national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories, land use is classified according to the IPCC land-use categories of forest land, cropland, grassland, wetlands, settlements and other lands (see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories and their 2019 Refinement for details (IPCC, 2006, 2019))."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/809e20d2-3ae7-4bd9-8126-47efb5e3c996","prefLabel":{"en":"Anthropogenic subsidence"},"definition":{"en":"Downward motion of the land surface induced by anthropogenic drivers (e.g., loading, extraction of hydrocarbons and/or groundwater, drainage, mining activities) causing sediment compaction or subsidence/deformation of the sedimentary sequence, or oxidation of organic material, thereby leading to relative sea level rise."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e292361-572a-4d85-8a80-d51a1d9259e7","prefLabel":{"en":"Grazing land"},"definition":{"en":"The sum of rangelands and pastures not considered as cropland, and subject to livestock grazing or hay production. It includes a wide range of ecosystems, for example, systems with vegetation that fall below the threshold used in the forest land category, silvo-pastoral systems, as well as natural, managed grasslands and semi-deserts."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0a7c0b6f-b9e3-4379-ac3d-bafc51c833ab","prefLabel":{"en":"Ambiguity"},"definition":{"en":"Ambiguity is the lack of conceptual clarity and operational distinction between two domains, which leads to overlapping mandates, inconsistent terminology, and challenges in integration. \n\nWen, J., Wan, C., Ye, Q., Yan, J., & Li, W. (2023). Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Their Linkages with Sustainable Development over the Past 30 Years: A Review. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 14, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-023-00472-3"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the case of CCA and DRR this ambiguity stems from their different historical and institutional origins, despite their shared goals of reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience. Wen et al. (2023) describe this ambiguity as a key barrier to effective integration, noting that while CCA and DRR are often treated as complementary, they are frequently implemented through separate governance structures and policy frameworks, resulting in fragmented and sometimes conflicting approaches."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f42b0047-6111-4a20-9bde-286db4087e29","prefLabel":{"en":"Annular modes"},"definition":{"en":"Hemispheric scale patterns of atmospheric variability characterized by opposing and synchronous fluctuations in sea-level pressure between the polar caps and mid-latitudes, with a structure exhibiting a high degree of zonal symmetry, and with no real preferred time scales ranging from days to decades. In each hemisphere, these fluctuations reflect changes in the latitudinal position and strength of the mid-latitude jets and associated storm tracks. Annular modes are defined as the leading mode of variability of extratropical sea-level pressure or geopotential heights and are known as the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) and Southern Annular Mode (SAM) in the two hemispheres, respectively."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d5102a2-4730-490f-bf4a-4c257bef6778","prefLabel":{"en":"Northern Annular Mode (NAM)"},"definition":{"en":"A see-saw latitudinal fluctuation in Northern Hemisphere sea-level pressure or geopotential height between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes. The NAM has some links with the stratospheric polar vortex and is related to the fluctuation in strength and latitude of the mean westerlies. Its variance is maximum in winter and its pattern has a strong regional expression in the North Atlantic being strongly correlated with the North Atlantic Oscillation index. The NAM is also known as the Arctic Oscillation (AO). In its positive phase, the NAM is characterized by anomalously low pressure over the Arctic and high pressure over the mid-latitudes/subtropics, with a strengthening of the zonally averaged westerly winds on their polar flank that confines colder air across the Arctic. The negative NAM phase is characterized by a more distorted wind pattern and jet meanders that increase storminess in the mid-latitude regions. See Section AIV.2.1 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a2f5208f-1f0e-40b9-95ae-db9e2c39d5c6","prefLabel":{"en":"Southern Annular Mode (SAM)"},"definition":{"en":"The leading mode of climate variability of Southern Hemisphere sea-level pressure and geopotential height, which is associated with the strength and latitudinal shifts in the mid- to high-latitudes westerly wind belt. The SAM is also known as the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO). A positive SAM phase is defined as lower-than-normal pressures over the polar regions and higher-than-normal pressures in the southern mid-latitudes, with a contraction towards Antarctica and strengthening of the westerly wind belt. The negative SAM phase exhibits positive high latitude pressure anomalies, negative mid-latitude pressure anomalies and a weaker westerly flow expanded towards the equator. See Section AIV.2.2 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c55d4f11-a349-4ed4-b6c4-ee51510cdd5c","prefLabel":{"en":"Anthropocene"},"definition":{"en":"A proposed new geological epoch resulting from significant human-driven changes to the structure and functioning of the Earth system, including the climate system. Originally proposed in the Earth system science community in 2000, the proposed new epoch is undergoing a formalisation process within the geological community based on the stratigraphic evidence that human activities have changed the Earth system to the extent of forming geological deposits with a signature that is distinct from those of the Holocene, and which will remain in the geological record. Both the stratigraphic and Earth system approaches to defining the Anthropocene consider the mid-20th century to be the most appropriate starting date (Steffen et al., 2016), although others have been proposed and continue to be discussed. The Anthropocene concept has already been informally adopted by diverse disciplines and the public to denote the substantive influence of humans on the Earth system."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/01c021bf-844d-4e07-bf00-6525c012ccd9","prefLabel":{"en":"Arid zone"},"definition":{"en":"Areas where vegetation growth is severely constrained due to limited water availability. For the most part, the native vegetation of arid zones is sparse. There is high rainfall variability, with annual averages below 300 mm. Crop farming in arid zones requires irrigation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d44feacc-78a0-4251-91ed-e05ffe616c67","prefLabel":{"en":"Aridity"},"definition":{"en":"The state of a long-term climatic feature characterised by low average precipitation or available water in a region. Aridity generally arises from widespread persistent atmospheric subsidence or anticyclonic conditions, and from more localised subsidence in the lee side of mountains (adapted from Ogallo and Gbeckor-Kove, 1989; Türkeş, 1999)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0bbd1663-dbb9-4305-aab7-337a6d1ce62c","prefLabel":{"en":"Artificial intelligence"},"altLabel":{"en":["ai"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dc307fb3-3da1-4b12-9e0b-edbbbc6c3578","prefLabel":{"en":"Artificial ocean upwelling (AOUpw)"},"definition":{"en":"A potential carbon dioxide removal (CDR) method that aims to artificially pump up cooler, nutrient-rich waters from deep in the ocean to the surface. The aim is to stimulate phytoplankton activity and thereby increase ocean CO2 uptake."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9ade868b-ead8-4e7f-89fd-03d8f1985e79","prefLabel":{"en":"Atmosphere"},"definition":{"en":"The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth, divided into five layers – the troposphere which contains half of the Earth’s atmosphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere, which is the outer limit of the atmosphere. The dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93 % volume mixing ratio), helium and radiatively active greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) (0.04% volume mixing ratio), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3). In addition, the atmosphere contains the GHG water vapour (H2O), whose concentrations are highly variable (0–5% volume mixing ratio) as the sources (evapotranspiration) and sinks (precipitation) of water vapour show large spatio-temporal variations, and atmospheric temperature exerts a strong constraint on the amount of water vapour an air parcel can hold. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fea7d9c0-13c5-4b06-974c-74152d879cfc","prefLabel":{"en":"Advection"},"definition":{"en":"Transport of water or air along with its properties (e.g., temperature, chemical tracers) by winds or currents. Regarding the general distinction between advection and convection, the former describes transport by large-scale motions of the atmosphere or ocean, while convection describes the predominantly vertical, locally induced motions (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0a073ece-247f-4228-90ba-f17a40af5027","prefLabel":{"en":"Aerosol"},"definition":{"en":"A suspension of airborne solid or liquid particles, with typical particle size in the range of a few nanometres to several tens of micrometres and atmospheric lifetimes of up to several days in the troposphere and up to years in the stratosphere. The term aerosol, which includes both the particles and the suspending gas, is often used in this report in its plural form to mean ‘aerosol particles’. Aerosols may be of either natural or anthropogenic origin in the troposphere; stratospheric aerosols mostly stem from volcanic eruptions. Aerosols can cause an effective radiative forcing directly through scattering and absorbing radiation (aerosol–radiation interaction), and indirectly by acting as cloud condensation nuclei or ice nucleating particles that affect the properties of clouds (aerosol–cloud interaction), and upon deposition on snow- or ice-covered surfaces. Atmospheric aerosols may be either emitted as primary particulate matter or formed within the atmosphere from gaseous precursors (secondary production). Aerosols may be composed of sea salt, organic carbon, black carbon (BC), mineral species (mainly desert dust), sulphate, nitrate and ammonium or their mixtures (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/69b92861-bfa4-4228-a71e-33758a06f0d8","prefLabel":{"en":"Aerosol optical depth (AOD)"},"definition":{"en":"Wavelength-dependent aerosol optical depth is a measure of the aerosol contribution to extinction of top-of-the-atmosphere solar intensity measured at the ground. AOD is unitless (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb661721-193b-45cc-8fb3-438c8d1de123","prefLabel":{"en":"Fine-mode aerosol optical depth"},"definition":{"en":"Aerosol optical depth due to aerosol particles smaller than 1 µm in radius (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a117d0c9-97c7-4b7d-bfff-82cff350cc66","prefLabel":{"en":"Aerosol–cloud interaction"},"definition":{"en":"A process by which a perturbation to aerosol affects the microphysical properties and evolution of clouds through the aerosol role as cloud condensation nuclei or ice nuclei, particularly in ways that affect radiation or precipitation; such processes can also include the effect of clouds and precipitation on aerosol. The aerosol perturbation can be anthropogenic or come from some natural source. The radiative forcing from such interactions has traditionally been attributed to numerous indirect aerosol effects, but in this report, only two levels of radiative forcing (or effect) are distinguished: Effective radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol–cloud interactions (ERFaci) and Instantaneous radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol–cloud interactions (IRFaci) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/83142825-e92b-4a8f-92dc-cec1c768c099","prefLabel":{"en":"Effective radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol–cloud interactions (ERFaci)"},"definition":{"en":"The final radiative forcing (or effect) from the aerosol perturbation, including the adjustments to the initial change in droplet or crystal formation rate. These adjustments include changes in the strength of convection, precipitation efficiency, cloud fraction, lifetime or water content of clouds, and the formation or suppression of clouds in remote areas due to altered circulations (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8dbcaba5-64b0-458c-b896-6e60d11c2098","prefLabel":{"en":"Instantaneous radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol–cloud interactions (IRFaci)"},"definition":{"en":"The radiative forcing (or radiative effect, if the perturbation is internally generated) due to the change in number or size distribution of cloud droplets or ice crystals that is the proximate result of an aerosol perturbation, with other variables (in particular total cloud water content) remaining equal. In liquid clouds, an increase in cloud droplet concentration and surface area would increase the cloud albedo. This effect is also known as the cloud albedo effect, first indirect effect, or Twomey effect. It is a largely theoretical concept that cannot readily be isolated in observations or comprehensive process models due to the ubiquity of adjustments (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f374733f-5142-4119-b0e7-7e5b95837221","prefLabel":{"en":"Aerosol–radiation interaction"},"definition":{"en":"An interaction of aerosol directly with radiation produces radiative effects. In this report, two levels of radiative forcing (or effect) are distinguished: Effective radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol–radiation interactions (ERFari) and Instantaneous radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol–radiation interactions (IRFari) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/844598c8-c1cc-4fe2-a33c-bb09703114b8","prefLabel":{"en":"Aerosol effective radiative forcing (ERFari+aci)"},"definition":{"en":"The total effective radiative forcing due to both aerosol–cloud and aerosol–radiation interactions is denoted aerosol effective radiative forcing (ERFari+aci) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ab03b1cb-622b-4988-bde0-214edf7f8240","prefLabel":{"en":"Air mass"},"definition":{"en":"A widespread body of air, the approximately homogeneous properties of which (i) have been established while that air was situated over a particular region of the Earth’s surface, and (ii) undergo specific modifications while in transit away from the source region (AMS, 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7b56186b-f8d4-43fb-8739-8f6f6b485c88","prefLabel":{"en":"Airborne fraction"},"definition":{"en":"The fraction of total carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (from fossil fuels and land-use change) remaining in the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9b4b81c0-1532-4aa6-a1d0-30389542357c","prefLabel":{"en":"Albedo"},"definition":{"en":"The proportion of sunlight (solar radiation) reflected by a surface or object, often expressed as a percentage. Clouds, snow and ice usually have high albedo; soil surfaces cover the albedo range from high to low; vegetation in the dry season and/or in arid zones can have high albedo, whereas photosynthetically active vegetation and the ocean have low albedo. The Earth’s planetary albedo changes mainly through changes in cloudiness, snow, ice, leaf area and land cover."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e1a5d5a0-9085-4c87-986d-0c46873291d1","prefLabel":{"en":"Arctic oscillation (AO)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Atmospheric processes, Atmospheric cycle"]},"definition":{"en":"See Northern Annular Mode (NAM) (under Annular modes)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a5a45a3b-16f4-4ea6-9e16-48ac8d15bd9b","prefLabel":{"en":"Atmospheric boundary layer"},"definition":{"en":"The atmospheric layer adjacent to the Earth’s surface that is affected by friction against that boundary surface, and possibly by transport of heat and other variables across that surface (AMS, 2021). The lowest 100 m of the boundary layer (about 10% of the boundary layer thickness), where mechanical generation of turbulence is dominant, is called the surface boundary layer or surface layer."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5f680ecf-c23f-4e54-a937-8b756b498f95","prefLabel":{"en":"Atmospheric rivers (ARs)"},"definition":{"en":"Long, narrow (up to a few hundred km wide), shallow (up to a few km deep) and transient corridors of strong horizontal water vapour transport that are typically associated with a low-level jet stream ahead of the cold front of an extratropical cyclone (ETC) (Ralph et al., 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/93d1bcd2-9685-43d2-b317-b8213e89c5d8","prefLabel":{"en":"Bipolar seesaw (also inter-hemispheric seesaw, inter-hemispheric asymmetry, hemispheric asymmetry)"},"altLabel":{"en":["hemispheric asymmetry","inter-hemispheric asymmetry","inter-hemispheric seesaw"]},"definition":{"en":"A phenomenon in which temperature changes in the Northern and Southern hemispheres are related but out of phase, generally inferred to represent a change in the magnitude or sign of net heat transport across the equator. Originally called hemispheric asymmetry and linked to changes in thermohaline overturning circulation on multi-millennial scales (Mix et al, 1986), later named bipolar seesaw and applied to millennial scales (Broecker, 1998) with a similar thermohaline mechanism (Stocker and Johnsen, 2003). See also inter-hemispheric seesaw, inter-hemispheric asymmetry, hemispheric asymmetry."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eb428fe0-aabb-466f-aa58-2f24e836c946","prefLabel":{"en":"Blocking"},"definition":{"en":"Associated with persistent, slow-moving high-pressure systems that obstruct the prevailing westerly winds in the middle and high latitudes and the normal eastward progress of extratropical transient storm systems. It is an important component of the intra-seasonal climate variability in the extratropics and can cause long-lived weather conditions such as cold spells in winter and summer heatwaves."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1cf92dd7-eb77-4421-acd0-633aa647624e","prefLabel":{"en":"Brewer–Dobson circulation"},"definition":{"en":"The meridional overturning circulation of the stratosphere transporting air upward in the tropics, poleward to the winter hemisphere, and downward at polar and subpolar latitudes. The Brewer–Dobson circulation is driven by the interaction between upward propagating planetary waves and the mean flow."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/70e4266e-cdf6-41af-9268-aa2c086d605a","prefLabel":{"en":"Burden"},"definition":{"en":"The total mass of a substance of concern in the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1c58792d-e519-4fcc-ab90-f04270053876","prefLabel":{"en":"Clausius–Clapeyron equation/relationship"},"definition":{"en":"The thermodynamic relationship between temperature and the vapour pressure of a substance in which two phases of the substance are in equilibrium (e.g., liquid water and water vapour). For gases such as water vapour, this relation gives the increase in equilibrium (or saturation) vapour pressure per unit change in air temperature."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3deb2916-9acf-497c-a04d-8413de0df15f","prefLabel":{"en":"Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)"},"definition":{"en":"The subset of aerosol particles that serve as an initial site for the condensation of liquid water, which can lead to the formation of cloud droplets, under typical cloud formation conditions. The main factor that determines which aerosol particles are CCN at a given supersaturation is their size."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/49cdc8fa-b391-4cd3-9a1a-8fd711f986c2","prefLabel":{"en":"Cloud feedback"},"definition":{"en":"A climate feedback involving changes in any of the properties of clouds as a response to a change in the local or global surface temperature. Understanding cloud feedbacks and determining their magnitude and sign requires an understanding of how a change in climate may affect the spectrum of cloud types, the cloud fraction and height, the radiative properties of clouds, and finally the Earth’s radiation budget. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/916f5aae-c545-4977-8683-967483fd3d11","prefLabel":{"en":"Cloud radiative effect"},"definition":{"en":"The radiative effect of clouds relative to the identical situation without clouds."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5a208f49-ef8b-4fd9-ab00-ebb011be08ff","prefLabel":{"en":"Convection"},"definition":{"en":"Vertical motion driven by buoyancy forces arising from static instability, usually caused by near-surface cooling or increases in salinity in the case of the ocean and near-surface warming or cloud-top radiative cooling in the case of the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, convection gives rise to cumulus clouds and precipitation and is effective at both scavenging and vertically transporting chemical species. In the ocean, convection can carry surface waters to deep within the ocean."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42047cca-9832-4ee9-b676-53e5324ae93d","prefLabel":{"en":"Diurnal temperature range"},"definition":{"en":"The difference between the maximum and minimum temperature during a 24-hour period."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e88aa1be-dbd9-4e2a-97ba-5dd014fbdad5","prefLabel":{"en":"Dobson unit (DU)"},"definition":{"en":"A unit to measure the total amount of ozone in a vertical column above the Earth’s surface (total column ozone). The number of Dobson units is the thickness in units of 10-5 m that the ozone column would occupy if compressed into a layer of uniform density at a pressure of 1013 hPa and a temperature of 0°C. One DU corresponds to a column of ozone containing 2.69 × 1020 molecules per square metre. A typical value for the amount of ozone in a column of the Earth’s atmosphere, although very variable, is 300 DU."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/786f3dc0-39f2-4264-8250-181375f0c9c8","prefLabel":{"en":"Extratropical jets"},"definition":{"en":"Extratropical jets are wind maxima in the upper troposphere marking zones of baroclinic instability. Anomalies in the position of these jets are often associated with storms, blocking, and weather extremes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2ad3df13-0f8c-4d2d-9429-702abf63b64b","prefLabel":{"en":"Flux"},"definition":{"en":"A movement (a flow) of matter (e.g., water vapour, particles), heat or energy from one place to another, or from one medium (e.g., land surface) to another (e.g., atmosphere)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73ac2713-972b-4355-bebc-e3000b14c91e","prefLabel":{"en":"Free atmosphere"},"definition":{"en":"The atmospheric layer that is negligibly affected by friction against the Earth’s surface, and which is above the atmospheric boundary layer."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ab17eca8-571b-46d3-82dc-5b4227dbbce2","prefLabel":{"en":"Gases"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/160fab95-a800-47e6-82ae-a452a46d9ca4","prefLabel":{"en":"Ammonia"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ammonia gas","Anhydrous ammonia","Azane","Spirit of hartshorn"]},"definition":{"en":"Ammonia (NH3) is a colourless acrid-smelling reactive gas at ambient temperature and pressure and is considered a significant public health hazard (WHO, 1986; PHE, 2019).WHO, 1986. Environmental Health Criteria 54: Ammonia. 10.4, Accidental exposure. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 2 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Ammonia is a non-flammable gas but is treated as flammable because it can form explosive mixtures with air. Ammonia dissolves readily in water. Solutions of ammonia are alkali and can be corrosive when concentrated or mixed with water. In addition to irritation symptoms, delayed onset of serious respiratory symptoms may present, including corrosive damage to the mucous membranes of both the upper and lower respiratory tract (WHO, 1986; PHE, England 2019). Although ammonia is lighter than air, the vapours from a leak will initially hug the ground. Long-term exposure to low concentrations or short-term exposure to high concentrations may result in adverse health conditions from inhalation. Prolonged exposure of containers to fire or heat may result in their violent rupturing and rocketing. Both liquid and vapours are extremely irritating, especially to the eyes (Cameo Chemicals, no date). Ammonia is an extensively used industrial chemical. It is commonly used in the production of fertilisers, fibres and plastics, and explosives and is also widely used as a cleaning and descaling agent and in food additives and as industrial refrigerant (WHO, 1986). High gaseous ammonia concentrations may be encountered locally, both in domestic and occupational environments, as a result of gaseous emissions and/or spillages of concentrated solutions, and respiratory (and skin and eye) injury may result. On a larger scale, spillage from stock or transport tanks or refrigeration plant of concentrated ammonia liquor or anhydrous ammonia would constitute severe environmental damage and would cause serious injury to people, animals, and plants in the vicinity. Owing to its low density and short bio-persistence, major spillages would be expected to disperse rapidly and not to persist in the environment (WHO, 1990). Ammonia can be stored and transported as a liquid at a pressure of 10 atm at 25°C. Ammonia dissolves readily in water where it forms, and is in equilibrium with ammonium ions (NH4+). The sum of ammonia and ammonium concentrations is termed ‘total ammonia’ and, owing to the slightly different relative molecular masses, may be expressed as ‘total ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N)’. In most waters, NH4+ predominates, but increased pH or temperature or decreased ionic strength may materially increase levels of non-ionized ammonia (WHO, 1986)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4595bcf8-5bd3-4f3b-a1f9-733763be3a6a","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon dioxide (CO2)"},"definition":{"en":"A naturally occurring gas, CO2 is also a by-product of burning fossil fuels (such as oil, gas and coal), of burning biomass, of land-use changes (LUCs) and of industrial processes (e.g., cement production). It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a global warming potential (GWP) of 1."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3027fe0e-d39f-4d34-9899-be8d1b48367f","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon Monoxide"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas that can be poisonous to humans and is considered a significant public health hazard (WHO, 1999).WHO, 1999. Environmental Health Criteria 213: Carbon monoxide. Second Edition. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 2 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the most common and widely distributed air pollutants. It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas that is poorly soluble in water. Carbon monoxide has a slightly lower density than air. In the human body, it reacts readily with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. Small amounts of carbon monoxide are also produced endogenously. Carbon monoxide exposure is still one of the leading causes of unintentional and suicidal poisonings, and causes a large number of deaths annually (WHO, 2000). It is a product of the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels and is also produced by natural processes or by biotransformation of halomethanes within the human body. With external exposure to additional carbon monoxide, subtle effects can begin to occur, and exposure to higher levels can result in serious symptoms and death. The health effects of carbon monoxide are largely the result of the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb), which impairs the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (WHO, 1999). The total annual global emissions of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere have been estimated to be as high as 2600 million tonnes, of which about 60% are from human activities and about 40% from natural processes. Anthropogenic emissions of carbon monoxide originate mainly from the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. The largest proportion of these emissions are produced as exhaust gases from internal combustion engines, especially by motor vehicles with petrol engines. Other common sources include various industrial processes, power plants using coal, and waste incinerators. Petroleum-derived emissions have greatly increased over the past few decades. Some widespread natural non-biological and biological sources, such as plants, oceans and oxidation of hydrocarbons, give rise to the background concentrations outside urban areas. In indoor environments, space heaters fuelled with oil, gas or kerosene, gas stoves and some other combustion appliances (e.g., wood stoves), and tobacco smoking are also responsible for significant emissions of carbon monoxide (WHO, 2000)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6799af33-d814-46db-8020-17f35ecbe54d","prefLabel":{"en":"Chlorine"},"definition":{"en":"Chlorine is a reactive pale green gas with many uses including disinfection of water that is approximately three times heavier than air and has a characteristic odour similar to bleach. Most significant exposures to chlorine result from loss of containment of chlorine during storage and transport. Human exposure can result in symptoms ranging from mild irritation to rapid death related to pulmonary oedema. It is considered a significant public health hazard (adapted from IPCS, 1982 and PHE, 2019).IPCS, 1982. Environmental Health Criteria 21: Chlorine and hydrogen chloride. International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). Accessed 2 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Chlorine (chemical symbol Cl, atomic number 17) reacts violently with bases and is a corrosive, strong oxidant. It also reacts violently with combustible substances and reducing agents and most organic and inorganic compounds, causing a fire and explosion hazard. It may also combine with water or steam to produce toxic and corrosive fumes of hydrochloric acid (PHE, 2019). Chlorine is used in the disinfection of water and in the production of bleach and chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents, polyvinyl chloride and other industrial processes. Large quantities are also used in the bleaching of pulp and paper. Bleach contains sodium hypochlorite, which, if (inadvertently) mixed with acidic chemicals can result in the generation and release of chlorine gas. If chlorine is released from a tank into the air, the chlorine will evaporate very quickly, forming a highly toxic greenish-yellow cloud (ATSDR, 2010)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7aca42df-51c2-4269-9a33-fc0f749e2aab","prefLabel":{"en":"Phosphine"},"altLabel":{"en":["Hydrogen phosphide,","Phosphane","Phosphoretted hydrogen,","Phosphorus hydride,","Phosphorus trihydride,"]},"definition":{"en":"Phosphine (PH₃) is a colourless, flammable, and explosive gas at room temperature. The major uses of phosphine are as a rodenticide and fumigant for agricultural products and in the manufacture of semiconductors for the electronics industry. Exposure to low doses causes non-specific symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, diarrhoea, thirst, muscle pain, difficulty breathing and fluid in the lungs. Exposure to higher doses may cause more severe effects, even death (adapted from PHE, 2017 and CDC, 2019).CDC, 2019. Phosphine. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Accessed 20 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Phosphine (PH₃) reacts violently with air, oxygen, oxidants such as chlorine and nitrogen oxides, metal nitrates, halogens and many other substances causing fire and explosion hazard. Pure phosphine is odourless, although most commercially available grades have the odour of garlic or decaying fish. It attacks many metals. Phosphine decomposes on heating or burning, producing fumes including phosphorus oxides and liberates hydrogen when passed over heated metal (PHE, 2017a). The major uses of phosphine are as a rodenticide and fumigant for stored agricultural products such as nuts, seeds, grains, coffee and tobacco, and in the manufacture of semi-conductors for the electronics industry. Phosphine is also used in the production of some chemicals and metal alloys and is an unintentional by-product in the illegal manufacture of the drug methamphetamine. Phosphine is also used as a condensation catalyst and in the manufacture of some polymers (PHE, 2017a). Phosphine is rarely found in nature. Small amounts can be formed during the breakdown of organic matter, although it is rapidly degraded. Phosphine is released into the air via emissions from various manufacturing processes and from the use of metal phosphides (magnesium, aluminium, zinc), phosphide fumigants and pesticides (PHE, 2017a)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f59bc93b-78fd-40dd-8820-68a172e3bf18","prefLabel":{"en":"General circulation"},"definition":{"en":"The large-scale motions of the atmosphere and the ocean as a consequence of differential heating on a rotating Earth. General circulation contributes to the energy balance of the system through transport of heat and momentum."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ac87e19c-7e03-42d6-b249-283b280f9ec8","prefLabel":{"en":"Geostrophic winds or currents"},"definition":{"en":"A wind or current that is in balance with the horizontal pressure gradient and the Coriolis force, and thus is outside of the influence of friction. Thus, the wind or current is directly parallel to isobars and its speed is proportional to the horizontal pressure gradient."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb2af02c-6c32-4445-976f-815f4336865e","prefLabel":{"en":"Greenhouse effect"},"definition":{"en":"The infrared radiative effect of all infrared-absorbing constituents in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases (GHGs), clouds, and some aerosols absorb terrestrial radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface and elsewhere in the atmosphere. These substances emit infrared radiation in all directions, but, everything else being equal, the net amount emitted to space is normally less than would have been emitted in the absence of these absorbers because of the decline of temperature with altitude in the troposphere and the consequent weakening of emission. An increase in the concentration of GHGs increases the magnitude of this effect; the difference is sometimes called the enhanced greenhouse effect. The change in a GHG concentration because of anthropogenic emissions contributes to an instantaneous radiative forcing. Earth’s surface temperature and troposphere warm in response to this forcing, gradually restoring the radiative balance at the top of the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/589ef442-9474-461f-8b58-009469e3b531","prefLabel":{"en":"Greenhouse gas (GHG)"},"definition":{"en":"Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of terrestrial radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely human-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine- and bromine-containing substances, dealt with under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO2, N2O and CH4, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). For a list of well-mixed greenhouse gases, see Table 2.A.1."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/22818521-a753-4ed6-ab65-093d1d8e7fcc","prefLabel":{"en":"Ground-level ozone"},"definition":{"en":"Atmospheric ozone (O3) is formed naturally or from human-emitted precursors near Earth’s surface, thus affecting human health, agriculture and ecosystems. Ozone is a greenhouse gas (GHG), but ground-level ozone, unlike stratospheric ozone, also directly affects organisms at the surface. Ground-level ozone is sometimes referred to as tropospheric ozone, although much of the troposphere is well above the surface and thus does not directly expose organisms at the surface."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6601f6f9-995d-4a02-b7d9-e0f1eed05df8","prefLabel":{"en":"Tropospheric ozone"},"definition":{"en":"Tropospheric ozone acts as a greenhouse gas."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7e3f45b0-6cda-403c-be9f-6b357b3d70a5","prefLabel":{"en":"Hadley circulation"},"definition":{"en":"A direct, thermally driven overturning cell in the atmosphere consisting of poleward flow in the upper troposphere, subsiding air into the subtropical anticyclones, return flow as part of the trade winds near the surface, and with rising air near the equator in the so-called Inter-tropical Convergence Zone."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c50a7b2f-650d-4b2b-a3e4-cf7e7d3ac3e6","prefLabel":{"en":"Insolation"},"definition":{"en":"The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth by latitude and by season measured in W m–2. Usually, insolation refers to the radiation arriving at the top of the atmosphere. Sometimes it is specified as referring to the radiation arriving at the Earth’s surface."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e6e4511e-8d8b-4be1-ad86-ccd4236b8a36","prefLabel":{"en":"Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)"},"definition":{"en":"The Inter-tropical Convergence Zone is an equatorial zonal belt of low pressure, strong convection and heavy precipitation near the equator where the north-east trade winds meet the south-east trade winds. This band moves seasonally."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/33358b63-3ecc-4a59-b30f-865f83e078a6","prefLabel":{"en":"Lapse rate"},"definition":{"en":"The rate of change of an atmospheric variable, usually temperature, with height. The lapse rate is considered positive when the variable decreases with height."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d32c5440-7744-4f43-aeac-b9de552eec6e","prefLabel":{"en":"Latent heat flux"},"definition":{"en":"The turbulent flux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere that is associated with evaporation or condensation of water vapour at the surface; a component of the surface energy budget."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/99f8436f-fd8c-4481-846e-3cd985d375d4","prefLabel":{"en":"Light-absorbing particles"},"definition":{"en":"Light-absorbing particles (LAP), for example, black carbon (BC), brown carbon and dust, are particles that absorb solar radiation and convert it into internal energy, thus raising the particle’s temperature and emitting thermal-infrared radiation that is selectively absorbed by the surrounding medium. LAP affect the energy balance of the atmosphere and clouds, and when deposited on snow and ice, they reduce snow/ice albedo, increasing heating and accelerating melting. These particles have a warming effect on climate."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e223a08e-9ccc-4aad-abaa-ce99d88c6c95","prefLabel":{"en":"Longwave radiation"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4d999e64-6409-471a-aa71-7e2aa5bcdbaf","prefLabel":{"en":"Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO)"},"definition":{"en":"The largest mode of tropical atmospheric intra-seasonal variability with typical periods ranging from 20 to 90 days. The MJO corresponds to planetary-scale disturbances of pressure, wind and deep convection moving predominantly eastward along the equator. As it progresses, the MJO is associated with the temporal alternation of large-scale enhanced and suppressed rainfall, with maximum loading over the Indian and western Pacific oceans, although influences of the MJO can be tracked over the Atlantic/Africa in dynamical fields. See Section AIV.2.8 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a97a7adc-9c02-433a-889a-1129a0115c9f","prefLabel":{"en":"Mole fraction or mixing ratio"},"definition":{"en":"Mole fraction, or mixing ratio, is the ratio of the number of moles of a constituent in a given volume to the total number of moles of all constituents in that volume. It is usually reported for dry air. Typical values for well-mixed greenhouse gases are in the order of μmol mol–1 (parts per million: ppm), nmol mol–1 (parts per billion: ppb), and fmol mol–1 (parts per trillion: ppt). Mole fraction differs from volume mixing ratio, often expressed in ppmv, etc., by the corrections for non-ideality of gases. This correction is significant relative to measurement precision for many greenhouse gases (Schwartz and Warneck, 1995)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1001baf9-70db-424e-8a8b-c70ff21776c0","prefLabel":{"en":"North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)"},"definition":{"en":"The leading mode of large-scale atmospheric variability in the North Atlantic basin characterized by alternating (see-saw) variations in sea level pressure or geopotential height between the Azores High in the subtropics and the Icelandic Low in the mid- to high latitudes, with some northward extension deep into the Arctic. It is associated with fluctuations in the strength and latitudinal position of the main westerly winds across a vast North Atlantic–Europe domain, and thus with fluctuations in the embedded extratropical cyclones and associated frontal systems leading to strong teleconnection over the entire North Atlantic adjacent continents. The positive and negative phases of the NAO show similar characteristics described for the Northern Annular Mode (NAM). See Section AIV.2.1 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e26b578-c7b9-4454-968c-c9442b8ece7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Ozone (O3)"},"definition":{"en":"The triatomic form of oxygen, and a gaseous atmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, O3 is created both naturally and by photochemical reactions involving gases resulting from human activities (e.g., smog). Tropospheric O3 acts as a greenhouse gas (GHG). In the stratosphere, O3 is created by the interaction between solar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2). Stratospheric O3 plays a dominant role in the stratospheric radiative balance. Its concentration is highest in the ozone layer."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7e0c06b1-7fd7-4385-9d78-5f74fa6bb143","prefLabel":{"en":"Ozone layer"},"definition":{"en":"A layer of Earth’s stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth’s atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 15 to 35 kilometres (9.3 to 21.7 miles) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ed228ad1-f552-4b07-9196-70eef34f9423","prefLabel":{"en":"Ozonesonde"},"definition":{"en":"An ozonesonde is a radiosonde measuring ozone (O3) concentrations. The radiosonde is usually carried on a weather balloon and transmits measured quantities by radio to a ground-based receiver."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/88486bc9-42d3-4cd9-85ff-a74ccd506b40","prefLabel":{"en":"Particulate matter (PM)"},"definition":{"en":"Atmospheric aerosols involved in air pollution issues. Of greatest concern for health are particles of aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 10 micrometers, usually designated as PM10 and particles of diameter less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers, usually designated as PM2.5."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/128d9d5f-fc60-4574-a317-0001853378d9","prefLabel":{"en":"Precipitable water"},"definition":{"en":"The total amount of atmospheric water vapour in a vertical column of unit cross-sectional area. It is commonly expressed in terms of the height of the water if completely condensed and collected in a vessel of the same unit cross section."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f7f4f96d-d5ad-48b6-99eb-6d0094e9a22d","prefLabel":{"en":"Precursors"},"definition":{"en":"Atmospheric compounds that are not greenhouse gases (GHGs) or aerosols, but that have an effect on GHG or aerosol concentrations by taking part in physical or chemical processes regulating their production or destruction rates."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1051631e-d9c1-45ed-9340-b33ee0f329dd","prefLabel":{"en":"Sensible heat flux"},"definition":{"en":"The turbulent or conductive flux of heat from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere that is not associated with phase changes of water; a component of the surface energy budget."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/75f46f06-7ea8-4993-bfad-5464e001590c","prefLabel":{"en":"Stratosphere"},"definition":{"en":"The highly stratified region of the atmosphere above the tropopause, extending to about 50 km altitude."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5272717c-c90b-4141-81d3-d9218ba6511d","prefLabel":{"en":"Stratosphere–troposphere exchange (STE)"},"definition":{"en":"Stratosphere–troposphere exchange (STE) is understood as the flux of air or trace constituents across the tropopause, including both directions: the stratosphere to troposphere transport (STT) and troposphere to stratosphere transport (TST). STE is one of the key factors controlling the budgets of ozone, water vapour and other substances in both the troposphere and the lower stratosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc38dd48-b9d6-455a-87c7-0b9bf4d67a2b","prefLabel":{"en":"Stratospheric polar vortex"},"definition":{"en":"A large-scale region of cold air poleward of approximately 60 degrees that is contained by a strong westerly jet from the tropopause (8–10 km) to the stratopause (50–60 km) and that forms in each hemisphere during the winter half-year. Planetary waves can temporarily disrupt the vortex, producing easterly winds and rapid warming over polar regions in the stratosphere, and leading to substantial weakening or breakdown of the vortex."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b47a74ab-8715-40b0-a641-a26da7d03a6d","prefLabel":{"en":"Stratospheric sounding unit (SSU)"},"definition":{"en":"A three-channel infrared sounder on operational U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) polar-orbiting satellites. The three channels are used to determine profiles of temperature in the stratosphere (AMS, 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/631985c2-375f-4cc4-9a57-c27458699a26","prefLabel":{"en":"Sudden stratospheric warming (SSW)"},"definition":{"en":"A phenomena of rapid warming in the stratosphere at high latitudes (sometimes more than 50°C in 1–2 days) that can cause breakdown of stratospheric polar vortices."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8623623b-9f92-40b6-b001-a76ad336d38d","prefLabel":{"en":"Teleconnection"},"definition":{"en":"Teleconnection refers to all the direct and indirect connections between causes and effects separated by geographical distance in their occurrence (Prabhakar et al., 2018; Benzie and Persson, 2019).\nWhereas transboundary effects are transmitted over borders between neighbouring countries, “teleconnected” impacts result from more remote links over great distances (Moser and Hart 2015; Hedlund et al. 2018).\n\nIn the context of atmospheric sciences specifically, teleconnection is defined as the association between climate variables at widely separated, geographically fixed locations related to each other through physical processes and oceanic and/or atmospheric dynamical pathways. Teleconnections can be caused by several climate phenomena, such as Rossby wave-trains, mid-latitude jet and storm track displacements, fluctuations of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), fluctuations of the Walker circulation, etc. They can be initiated by modes of climate variability, thus providing the development of remote climate anomalies at various temporal lags (IPCC AR6)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term 'teleconnection' can be used more broadly, as well as specifically in the context of atmsopheric sciences (see AR6 definition)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58e1fc90-88b0-4dbe-a39f-ef743aa86c0c","prefLabel":{"en":"Teleconnection pattern"},"definition":{"en":"Spatial structure of climate anomalies that are linked to each other through teleconnection processes or that are the large-scale fingerprint of modes of climate variability. Teleconnection patterns can be visualized using correlation and/or regression maps of climate variables with some climate indices (i.e., those derived from the temporal variation of the main modes of climate variability). They can also be obtained from principal component analysis, singular value decomposition/maximum covariance analysis, clustering based on spatial recurrence criteria, etc. See also Section Atlas.3.1 of the AR6 WGI report and Teleconnection."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58e1fc90-88b0-4dbe-a39f-ef743aa86c0c","prefLabel":{"en":"Teleconnection pattern"},"definition":{"en":"Spatial structure of climate anomalies that are linked to each other through teleconnection processes or that are the large-scale fingerprint of modes of climate variability. Teleconnection patterns can be visualized using correlation and/or regression maps of climate variables with some climate indices (i.e., those derived from the temporal variation of the main modes of climate variability). They can also be obtained from principal component analysis, singular value decomposition/maximum covariance analysis, clustering based on spatial recurrence criteria, etc. See also Section Atlas.3.1 of the AR6 WGI report and Teleconnection."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/428eb5dd-38bd-45a8-a905-7efac854da0a","prefLabel":{"en":"Terrestrial radiation"},"definition":{"en":"Radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere and clouds. It is also known as thermal infrared or longwave radiation and is to be distinguished from the near-infrared radiation that is part of the solar spectrum. Infrared radiation, in general, has a distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) longer than the wavelength of the red light in the visible part of the spectrum. The spectrum of terrestrial radiation is almost entirely distinct from that of shortwave or solar radiation because of the difference in temperature between the Sun and the Earth–atmosphere system."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/62008731-94ff-454a-8291-aea39d0a71a8","prefLabel":{"en":"Trace gas"},"definition":{"en":"A minor constituent of the atmosphere, next to nitrogen and oxygen that together make up 99 % of all volume. The most important trace gases contributing to the greenhouse effect are carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and water vapour (H2O)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/62a4d892-5101-4bf8-aed0-20b527674207","prefLabel":{"en":"Tropopause"},"definition":{"en":"The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It ranges from 8–9 km at high latitudes to 15–16 km in the tropics."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4a2f6987-859b-466e-a8e0-1e05580a2831","prefLabel":{"en":"Troposphere"},"definition":{"en":"The lowest part of the atmosphere, below the tropopause, where clouds and weather phenomena occur. In the troposphere, temperatures generally decrease with height."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b63605ab-7034-4f9f-9014-8350260b85f8","prefLabel":{"en":"UV Radiation"},"definition":{"en":"UV radiation is the portion of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum between X-rays and visible light. Depending on its wavelength, UV radiation can penetrate the ozone layer and affect human health in different ways (Government of Canada, 2019).Government of Canada, 2019. Ultraviolet Radiation. Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["All radiation is a form of energy, most of which is invisible to the human eye. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is only one form of radiation and is measured on a scientific scale called the EM spectrum (US FDA, 2019). UV radiation is invisible energy in the wavelength range 100 to 400 nm (a nanometre is one billionth of a metre). UV radiation has a shorter wavelength and is more energetic than visible light. UV radiation comes from natural sources (such as the Sun), and artificial sources (such as black lights, welding equipment, lasers, and tanning equipment) (Government of Canada, 2019). The shorter the wavelength, the more harmful the UV radiation. However, shorter wavelength UV radiation is less able to penetrate the skin (EU, 2019; Government of Canada, 2019). UV radiation is divided into three wavelength ranges and all three bands are classified as a probable human carcinogen (Government of Canada, 2019; EU, 2019): UVA is long-range UV radiation between 320 and 400 nm. Although not as energetic as UVB, UVA can penetrate deep into the skin (dermis). This can cause immediate tanning and premature skin aging and play a role in the development of certain skin cancers. UVA is not readily absorbed by the ozone layer; about 95% gets through. UVB is short-wave UV radiation between 280 and 320 nm. It can just penetrate the outer protective layer of the skin and is responsible for delayed tanning, sunburn and most skin cancers. A large amount of UVB is absorbed by the ozone layer; only 5% reaches the Earth’s surface. UVC, with wavelengths between 100 and 280 nm, is very energetic. It is very dangerous to all forms of life (even with short exposures). However, UVC radiation is filtered out by the ozone layer, and never reaches Earth. It is created artificially to kill bacteria."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0ac6c8d-b2ef-426b-be9b-21228fa7de51","prefLabel":{"en":"Walker circulation"},"definition":{"en":"Direct thermally driven zonal overturning circulation in the atmosphere over the tropical Pacific Ocean, with rising air in the western and sinking air in the eastern Pacific."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6776cc01-8e75-4b36-8d9f-341a9fe272e6","prefLabel":{"en":"Avoid, Shift, Improve (ASI)"},"definition":{"en":"Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by avoiding the use of an emissions-producing service entirely, shifting to the lowest-emission mode of providing the service, and/or improving the technologies and systems for providing the service in ways that reduce emissions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d92e83ca-30fb-4dbd-b5fa-b47548f0f39a","prefLabel":{"en":"Barriers and enablers"},"definition":{"en":"Factors that could enable or limit planning and implementation of adaptation.Source: IPCC, 2022. Accessed 5 June 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["\"Recent IPCC reports (AR5 and AR6) identified a range of factors that could enable or limit planning and implementation of adaptation. Main categories of these factors included governance, financing, and\nknowledge and capacity; we can collectively refer to these factors as barriers and enablers.\"","\"Recent IPCC reports (AR5 and AR6) identified a range of factors that could enable or limit planning and implementation of adaptation. Main categories of these factors included governance, financing, and\nknowledge and capacity; we can collectively refer to these factors as barriers and enablers.\"\nSource: IPCC, 2022. Accessed 5 June 2026.
"]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/819a3331-1e16-4c36-be78-02513b26407c","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation governance"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ab28c1de-24b7-41f3-af5d-657f732662e4","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation limit"},"definition":{"en":"The point at which an actor's objectives (or system needs) cannot be secured from intolerable risks through adaptive actions (IPCC AR5, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e22b3f24-9a51-4c74-99d4-99cff43b949b","prefLabel":{"en":"Financing"},"definition":{"en":"Capital resources provided with an expected return on investment, for example, through loans, either public or private."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0d36bf2c-b04e-4570-8552-5b6910554a22","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation revenues"},"definition":{"en":"Climate adaptation revenues are the income generated from economic activities or financial flows that are explicitly intended to reduce vulnerability to, or manage the impacts of, climate change by enhancing resilience and adaptive capacity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6221ad3c-5284-460d-b8f7-c37b8c6e595b","prefLabel":{"en":"Bankability"},"definition":{"en":"A set of financial, technical, institutional, environmental, and social characteristics that make a project attractive and viable for financing by public or private investors. A project is bankable, whether from public or private sources, when its risk-return profile meets investors' criteria and it can secure finance to implement the project. Key criteria include the likelihood of meeting the project's financial, environmental, and social goals; sufficient estimated cash flows to cover costs and produce returns that meet investor expectations; and whether the project will be implemented by a creditworthy entity. For adaptation projects, bankability often depends on addressing challenges such as long payback periods, diffuse or public-good benefits, and uncertain or indirect revenue streams, which may require blended finance, public support, or risk-sharing mechanisms.\nSource: McHugh, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba56b0ed-1664-46f9-bf46-cc2ed6d83198","prefLabel":{"en":"Cost-benefit ratios (Benefit-cost ratio or BCR)"},"definition":{"en":"The ratio of the present value of the flow of benefits to the present value of the flow of costs of a measure. Benefits and costs are each discounted at a chosen discount rate. The benefit-cost ratio indicates the overall value for money of a project. If the ratio is greater than 1, the adaptation measure makes a positive net contribution to welfare.Source: UNFCCC, 2022. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b125d0a5-104b-43ea-975d-5ed25c9abe50","prefLabel":{"en":"Incentive mechanism"},"definition":{"en":"Any measure or scheme used to attract or reward Financing and Investment Entities. Incentive mechanisms range from changes or introduction of enabling laws and regulations, through grants, subsidies, or tariff support, to investment concepts, to new investment or financing schemes. They are proposed and offered by the public sector (EU, national, regional, or local) to the private sector to attract and mobilize private financing, de-risk innovative solutions, and overcome funding and financing barriers for climate adaptation projects. CLIMATEFIT D3.2 further distinguishes direct incentive mechanisms (improving project financial viability or reducing risk at the immediate project level) from indirect incentive mechanisms (soft policies, capacity building, and regulatory frameworks that create essential enabling conditions at the market level).Source: CLIMATEFIT, 2026. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aab4958a-e3eb-43c2-88ec-be056bbdb0b1","prefLabel":{"en":"Market failure"},"definition":{"en":"When private decisions are based on market prices that do not reflect the real scarcity of goods and services but rather reflect market distortions, they do not generate an efficient allocation of resources but cause welfare losses. A market distortion is any event in which a market reaches a market clearing price that is substantially different from the price that a market would achieve while operating under conditions of perfect competition and state enforcement of legal contracts and the ownership of private property. Examples of factors causing market prices to deviate from real economic scarcity are environmental externalities, public goods, monopoly power, information asymmetry, transaction costs, and non-rational behaviour."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8143c39c-9b44-45a1-b6e2-1cfdc53d3b0b","prefLabel":{"en":"Return on investment (ROI)"},"definition":{"en":"A percentage that compares the profit of an investment to its cost. IRR can be used to estimate an annualised ROI if required. Note that ROI can either be calculated from a private perspective (e.g. for an organisation), but also from a societal (economic) perspective.Source: CLIMATEFIT, 2025. Accessed 19 June 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/24a07f25-ee92-4864-94dc-58ec9c6233ba","prefLabel":{"en":"Uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"A state of incomplete knowledge that can result from a lack of information or from disagreement about what is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources, from imprecision in the data to ambiguously defined concepts or terminology, incomplete understanding of critical processes or uncertain projections of human behaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative measures (e.g., a probability density function) or by qualitative statements (e.g., reflecting the judgement of a team of experts) (Moss and Schneider, 2000; IPCC, 2004; Mastrandrea et al., 2010) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fe93c919-7765-4c03-b9af-10856e6d452f","prefLabel":{"en":"Deep uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"A situation of deep uncertainty exists when experts or stakeholders do not know or cannot agree on: (1) appropriate conceptual models that describe relationships among key driving forces in a system, (2) the probability distributions used to represent uncertainty about key variables and parameters and/or (3) how to weigh and value desirable alternative outcomes (Lempert et al., 2003) (IPCC AR6, 2023). Deep uncertainty also arises from actions taken over time in response to unpredictable evolving situations (Marchau et al. 2019 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/184b242c-189b-4e96-9da3-c2c47a001456","prefLabel":{"en":"Interpolation uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"Uncertainty arising from a statistical or physical model-based interpolation of a field between available estimates to create a more spatio-temporally complete estimate."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/995efb27-fccf-44c6-a7a5-57f201b6bbee","prefLabel":{"en":"Sampling uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"Uncertainty arising from incomplete or uneven availability of measurements in either space or time or both."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c549b3aa-3c1d-4f56-a631-a78c0ea8e0bf","prefLabel":{"en":"Governance"},"definition":{"en":"The structures, processes and actions through which private and public actors interact to address societal goals. This includes formal and informal institutions and the associated norms, rules, laws and procedures for deciding, managing, implementing and monitoring policies and measures at any geographic or political scale, from global to local (IPCC AR6)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/51bb80c9-bd1c-4ae9-a51b-a3d0b57d4c1c","prefLabel":{"en":"Acceptability of policy or system change"},"definition":{"en":"The extent to which a policy or system change is evaluated unfavourably or favourably, or rejected or supported, by members of the general public (public acceptability) or politicians or governments (political acceptability). Acceptability may vary from totally unacceptable/fully rejected to totally acceptable/fully supported; individuals may differ in how acceptable policies or system changes are believed to be (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/819a3331-1e16-4c36-be78-02513b26407c","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation governance"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5c32a59f-f6ac-4fa5-9d71-08fa95c0a3e8","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptive governance"},"definition":{"en":"Adjusting to changing conditions, such as climate change, through governance interactions that seek to maintain a desired state in a social-ecological system."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84d6c3a2-2d34-4245-afad-fc2eb9380623","prefLabel":{"en":"Global adaptation governance"},"definition":{"en":"Global adaptation governance occurs when state and non-state actors in the global (including transnational) sphere authoritatively and intentionally shape the actions of constituents toward climate change adaptation as a public goal (Persson, 2019)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c564377e-6ad9-4283-bc54-893a143dfee6","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate governance"},"definition":{"en":"The structures, processes and actions through which private and public actors seek to mitigate and adapt to climate change."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d384ec88-9b64-4334-811a-e7b196e7948a","prefLabel":{"en":"Deliberative governance"},"definition":{"en":"Deliberative governance involves decision making through inclusive public conversation which allows opportunity for developing policy options through public discussion rather than collating individual preferences through voting or referenda (although the latter governance mechanisms can also be proceded and legitimated by public deliberation processes)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/68bd3017-5ad8-492e-8bf7-b4fab66d2570","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster recovery"},"altLabel":{"en":["post-disaster recovery"]},"definition":{"en":"The restoring or improving of livelihoods and health, as well as economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets, systems and activities, of a disaster-affected community or society, aligning with the principles of sustainable development and “build back better”, to avoid or reduce future disaster risk (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/320a62d8-39d8-4d78-ab86-ef127aec8ee9","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster response"},"definition":{"en":"Actions taken directly before, during or immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected. These normally include a strategic perspective on cascading impacts of the event, new/emerging risk conditions as well as needs for rehabilitation, reconstruction, recovery and resilience building after the disaster event (modified from UNDRR, 2023 by the DRI Lexicon Project Expert Panel, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Effective and efficient response is dependent on availability of resilient infrastructure for search and rescue, evacuation, provisioning of basic services and distribution of food and water. The institutional elements of response include the provision of emergency services and public assistance by public and private and community sectors, as well as community and volunteer participation. “Emergency services” are a critical set of specialized agencies that have specific responsibilities in serving and protecting people and property in emergency and disaster situations. They include civil protection authorities, police and fire services, among many others.\n\nDisaster response is predominantly focused on immediate and short-term needs, but must also consider long-term sustainability goals. It can be organized, or emergent and spontaneous on the part of those affected. It should consider local priorities and existing capacities and it should be informed by cultural values and include the conservation of assets such as cultural heritage.\n\nThe effectiveness of response in relation to infrastructure is seen in immediate post-impact analysis of the security of damaged infrastructure, controls over use of such infrastructure and immediate activation of alternative service provision.\n\nEffective, efficient, and timely response relies on disaster preparedness measures, including the development of the capacities of individuals, communities, organizations, countries, and the international community. See also “Disaster preparedness”.\n\nThe division between the response stage and the subsequent recovery stage is not clear-cut. The adequacy and efficiency of response will influence more permanent recovery and reconstruction processes. Some response actions, such as the emergency provision of housing, electricity and water, may extend well into the recovery stage. Although only designed for temporary use, these provisions may become permanent for various reasons (modified from UNDRR, 2023 by the DRI Lexicon Project Expert Panel, 2023)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2605af32-4fdf-4847-ae26-4dcac5d01622","prefLabel":{"en":"Early warning systems (EWS)"},"definition":{"en":"The set of technical and institutional capacities to forecast, predict, and communicate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities, managed ecosystems, and organisations threatened by a hazard to prepare to act promptly and appropriately to reduce the possibility of harm or loss. Depending upon context, EWS may draw upon scientific and/or Indigenous knowledge, and other knowledge types. EWS are also considered for ecological applications, e.g., conservation, where the organisation itself is not threatened by hazard but the ecosystem under conservation is (e.g., coral bleaching alerts), in agriculture (e.g., warnings of heavy rainfall, drought, ground frost, and hailstorms) and in fisheries (e.g., warnings of storm, storm surge, and tsunamis) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Early warning systems are integral to disaster risk reduction as integrated systems of hazard monitoring, forecasting and prediction, disaster risk assessment, communication and preparedness activities systems and processes that enable individuals, communities, governments, businesses and others to take timely action to reduce disaster risks in advance of hazardous events (Adapted from: UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022).\n\nMulti-hazard early warning systems address several hazards and/or impacts of similar or different type in contexts where hazardous events may occur alone, simultaneously, cascadingly or cumulatively over time, and taking into account the potential interrelated effects. A multi-hazard early warning system with the ability to warn of one or more hazards increases the efficiency and consistency of warnings through coordinated and compatible mechanisms and capacities, involving multiple disciplines for updated and accurate hazards identification and monitoring for multiple hazards (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9e18fa36-1952-492d-a6cb-3ab194712cc5","prefLabel":{"en":"EU Adaptation Strategy"},"altLabel":{"en":["eu adaptation strategy"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/31b591a2-23bf-4cf7-bcfb-5eef2000fe1e","prefLabel":{"en":"Flexible governance"},"definition":{"en":"Strategies of governance at various levels, which prioritise the use of social learning and rapid feedback mechanisms in planning and policymaking, often through incremental, experimental and iterative management processes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84d6c3a2-2d34-4245-afad-fc2eb9380623","prefLabel":{"en":"Global adaptation governance"},"definition":{"en":"Global adaptation governance occurs when state and non-state actors in the global (including transnational) sphere authoritatively and intentionally shape the actions of constituents toward climate change adaptation as a public goal (Persson, 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6bb95c4b-d2e1-410e-90c4-5bf9aff0ddc0","prefLabel":{"en":"Governance capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of governance institutions, leaders, and non-state and civil society to plan, coordinate, fund, implement, evaluate and adjust policies and measures over the short, medium and long term, adjusting for uncertainty, rapid change and wide-ranging impacts and multiple actors and demands."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/35433ad9-8f17-4e39-b1f1-e2db4c035abf","prefLabel":{"en":"International Frameworks"},"definition":{"en":"An international framework is a recorded international agreement or treaty between sovereign states or other subjects of international law (including international organizations) that is governed by international law.\nSource: Wikipedia.\nAccessed 19 June 2026.
"},"example":{"en":"UNFCCC, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b937b740-5a1c-42d9-a8d2-d7308199bacc","prefLabel":{"en":"Conference of the Parties (COP)"},"definition":{"en":"The supreme body of UN conventions, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), comprising parties with a right to vote that have ratified or acceded to the convention."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/133fc999-60e8-498f-a047-287acfcf9e12","prefLabel":{"en":"Montreal Protocol"},"definition":{"en":"The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in Montreal in 1987, and subsequently adjusted and amended (including London (1990), Copenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997), Beijing (1999) and Kigali(2016)). It controls the consumption and production of chlorine- and bromine-containing chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone (O3), such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride and many others. Since the Kigali Amendment in 2016, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which were used as alternatives to ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), have been targeted for a phase-down due to their climate effect as greenhouse gases (GHGs)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/40f9564c-d47b-40ca-9b5b-a39d780ddb68","prefLabel":{"en":"Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction"},"definition":{"en":"The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 outlines seven clear targets and four priorities for action to prevent new, and to reduce existing, disaster risks. The voluntary, non-binding agreement recognises that the State has the primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders, including local government and the private sector. Its aim is to achieve ’substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries’."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8530d972-20a8-438e-8671-dc6e93e59262","prefLabel":{"en":"United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)"},"definition":{"en":"A legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management, established in 1994. The Convention’s objective is ‘to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing drought and/or desertification’. The Convention specifically addresses the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, known as the drylands, and has a particular focus on Africa. As of September 2020, the UNCCD had 197 Parties."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/934ca0cb-83ef-45c7-a12e-7c6c646b2dcf","prefLabel":{"en":"United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Framework Convention on Climate Change"]},"definition":{"en":"The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is one of a series of international agreements on global environmental issues adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The UNFCCC aims to prevent \"dangerous\" human interference with the climate system. It entered into force on 21 March 1994 and has been ratified by 192 countries."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0921140a-51a7-4895-9277-3a479b5d2279","prefLabel":{"en":"Multi-level governance"},"definition":{"en":"The dispersion of governance across multiple levels of jurisdiction and decision-making, including, global, regional, national and local, as well as trans-regional and trans-national levels."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84d6c3a2-2d34-4245-afad-fc2eb9380623","prefLabel":{"en":"Global adaptation governance"},"definition":{"en":"Global adaptation governance occurs when state and non-state actors in the global (including transnational) sphere authoritatively and intentionally shape the actions of constituents toward climate change adaptation as a public goal (Persson, 2019)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6b1b0f23-b069-43a2-acc7-868ca5d0dce1","prefLabel":{"en":"National adaptation plan"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8c268157-a87d-4d3f-b101-70f32d084b40","prefLabel":{"en":"national adaptation programme"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5ae9e16d-60ae-49d0-95bf-64071422d3a8","prefLabel":{"en":"National Adaptation Programme of Action"},"altLabel":{"en":["national adaptation programme of action"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/09e7ea29-eb4d-4ef5-972b-7d8fa572895b","prefLabel":{"en":"National adaptation strategies"},"altLabel":{"en":["national adaptation"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/967e7ba1-629f-4b96-bf92-3f01611ca2b6","prefLabel":{"en":"Participatory governance"},"definition":{"en":"A governance system that enables direct public engagement in decision-making using a variety of techniques, for example, referenda, community deliberation, citizen juries or participatory budgeting. The approach can be applied in formal and informal institutional contexts from national to local, but is usually associated with devolved decision making (Fung and Wright, 2003; Sarmiento and Tilly, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eb631de7-bf23-4ef9-b8d0-ef63e26eaad4","prefLabel":{"en":"Polycentric governance"},"definition":{"en":"Polycentric governance involves multiple centres of decision-making with overlapping jurisdictions. While the centres have some degree of autonomy, they also take each other into account, coordinating their actions and seeking to resolve conflicts (Carlisle and Gruby, 2017; Jordan et al., 2018; McGinnis and Ostrom, 2012)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1ad14362-9106-4736-9eb3-26ac8e9a6881","prefLabel":{"en":"Preparedness"},"altLabel":{"en":["preparedness","preparedness and response"]},"definition":{"en":"The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, response and recovery organizations, communities, and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from the impacts of likely, imminent, or current disasters (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/536c25fe-eb4c-4bea-a64d-9c4ddf3b895d","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster preparedness"},"altLabel":{"en":["disaster risk preparedness"]},"definition":{"en":"A condition where different levels and types of social, political and economic organization (and individuals) are able to anticipate and are ready to undertake actions that limit immediate hazard impacts, provide for early recovery, and promote sustainable post disaster recovery, including improved resilience (Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, n.d. Modified from UNDRR Sendai Framework Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Preparedness resources include the knowledge, capacities, human resources, assets, instruments and hardware developed or provided by governments, the private sector, response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals that facilitate response, including the existence of early warning systems at different spatial scales. \n\nPreparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and good linkages with early warning systems, and includes activities such as contingency planning, the stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation, and public information, and associated training and field exercises. These must be supported by formal institutional, legal, and budgetary capacities.\n\nPreparedness is a continuous cycle of planning, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, evaluating, and taking corrective action. These preparedness activities increase a community’s ability to respond when a disaster occurs. Training and exercising plans are the cornerstone of preparedness, which focuses on readiness to respond to all-hazard incidents and emergencies. \n\nA preparedness plan establishes arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective, and appropriate responses to specific potential hazardous events or emerging disaster situations that threaten society or the environment.\n\nIn relation to infrastructure, preparedness should be informed by the analysis of the physical condition of public infrastructure, its robustness and resilience, and existing levels of system redundancy, should any infrastructure system fail or be destroyed. This should be accompanied by the determination of alternatives for service provision immediately following impact and in the medium and long terms."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/62915e9b-0e3f-465a-a8f6-52d667f7ba85","prefLabel":{"en":"Regulation"},"altLabel":{"en":["Climate legislation"]},"definition":{"en":"A rule or order issued by governmental executive authorities or regulatory agencies and having the force of law. Regulations implement policies and are mostly specific for particular groups of people, legal entities or targeted activities. Regulation is also the act of designing and imposing rules or orders. Informational, transactional, administrative and political constraints in practice limit the regulator’s capability for implementing preferred policies."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4b7d4597-dbc1-4011-8a93-d53e66cc8882","prefLabel":{"en":"Knowledge and capacity"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d1f008d9-79aa-4ebe-90ac-7d72a69c0b66","prefLabel":{"en":"Capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The combination of all the strengths, attributes, and resources available to an individual or within an organisation, community, or society to achieve established goals and manage and reduce disaster risks and strengthen resilience (Adapted from: IPCC SREX, 2011; UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the context of renewable energy and climate change mitigation, the term 'capacity' can also refer to 'the facility to produce, perform, deploy or contain' (IPCC SRREN, 2011)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/85e57a67-253f-4257-9019-146878e74daf","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptive capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities or to respond to consequences (MA, 2005 in IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/11451a2e-b137-455b-9793-ab1cc8a7c638","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptive capacity benefit"},"definition":{"en":"An intervention provides an adaptive capacity benefit if it increases the ability of a person, population, or system to manage climate impacts or realize an opportunity emerging from climate change, including by transforming how and where they live. This can happen even if that population, person, or resource remains exposed to and very sensitive to a climate impact, though typically increasing adaptive capacity facilitates productive efforts to lower exposure and sensitivity.Source: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"},"example":{"en":"- Investments in extension services often increase farmer knowledge and access to agricultural resources. In places where the climate is marked by increasing variability, extension services can help farmers understand how to interpret seasonal forecasts such that they select appropriate seed varieties for likely seasonal conditions. In this example, the extension services provide an adaptive capacity benefit, while the seeds the farmers learn how to access provide a sensitivity benefit. \n- Investment in local planning capacity can yield improved zoning and land management in urban areas, allowing municipalities to avert impacts like flooding by reducing the land use driver of this challenge. Here, the investment in improved planning is an adaptive capacity benefit, which yields an exposure benefit by improving the quality of zoning and land management to reduce flooding.\nSource: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0988e41-6ea8-4bcd-ad1d-6e62c5b925b6","prefLabel":{"en":"Capacity building"},"definition":{"en":"The practice of enhancing the strengths and attributes of, and resources available to, an individual, community, society or organisation to respond to change (IPCC AR6, 2023)\n\nThe process by which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their capacities over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions. Comment: Capacity development is a concept that extends the term of capacity building to encompass all aspects of creating and sustaining capacity growth over time. It involves learning and various types of training, but also continuous efforts to develop institutions, political awareness, financial resources, technology systems, and the wider social and cultural enabling environment. (UNDRR, 2017)"},"scopeNote":{"en":["UNDP annotation: In the global context, capacity refers to the ability of individuals and institutions to make and implement decisions and perform functions in an effective, efficient and sustainable manner. At the individual level, capacity building refers to the process of changing attitudes and behaviours-imparting knowledge and developing skills while maximizing the benefits of participation, knowledge exchange and ownership. At the institutional level it focuses on the overall organizational performance and functioning capabilities, as well as the ability of an organization to adapt to change. It aims to develop the institution as a total system, including individuals groups and the organization itself.\n\nAn essential ingredient in capacity-building is transformation that is generated and sustained over time from within; transformation of this kind goes beyond performing tasks to changing mindsets and attitudes. Sustainable Development Goal 17: Revitalizing the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, the United Nations is committed to transformation from within. Goal 17 includes targets for capacity-building, including increasing technology and innovation in least developed countries and improving data collection and monitoring for the achievement of the SDGs themselves. Universities in particular can serve as centers of capacity-building through research, innovation and data collection and analysis.\n\n'Capacity Development' is used interchangeably with 'Capacity Building'."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/71bbc428-669e-41af-b75c-37d1522ca54f","prefLabel":{"en":"Coping capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of people, institutions, organisations and systems, using available skills, values, beliefs, resources, and opportunities, to address, manage and overcome adverse conditions in the short to medium term (UNISDR, 2009; IPCC, 2012)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the context of disaster risk reduction, 'coping capacity' can refer to the ability of people, organizations and systems, using available skills and resources, to manage adverse conditions, risk or disasters. The capacity to cope requires continuing awareness, resources and good management, both in normal times as well as during disasters or adverse conditions. Coping capacities contribute to the reduction of disaster risks (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6bb95c4b-d2e1-410e-90c4-5bf9aff0ddc0","prefLabel":{"en":"Governance capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of governance institutions, leaders, and non-state and civil society to plan, coordinate, fund, implement, evaluate and adjust policies and measures over the short, medium and long term, adjusting for uncertainty, rapid change and wide-ranging impacts and multiple actors and demands."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e446dcbd-7720-4f1d-b0ab-4da63929bd8c","prefLabel":{"en":"Institutional capacity"},"definition":{"en":"Building and strengthening individual organisations and providing technical and management training to support integrated planning and decision-making processes between organisations and people, as well as empowerment, social capital, and an enabling environment, including culture, values and power relations (Willems and Baumert, 2003)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0988e41-6ea8-4bcd-ad1d-6e62c5b925b6","prefLabel":{"en":"Capacity building"},"definition":{"en":"The practice of enhancing the strengths and attributes of, and resources available to, an individual, community, society or organisation to respond to change (IPCC AR6, 2023)\n\nThe process by which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their capacities over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions. Comment: Capacity development is a concept that extends the term of capacity building to encompass all aspects of creating and sustaining capacity growth over time. It involves learning and various types of training, but also continuous efforts to develop institutions, political awareness, financial resources, technology systems, and the wider social and cultural enabling environment. (UNDRR, 2017)"},"scopeNote":{"en":["UNDP annotation: In the global context, capacity refers to the ability of individuals and institutions to make and implement decisions and perform functions in an effective, efficient and sustainable manner. At the individual level, capacity building refers to the process of changing attitudes and behaviours-imparting knowledge and developing skills while maximizing the benefits of participation, knowledge exchange and ownership. At the institutional level it focuses on the overall organizational performance and functioning capabilities, as well as the ability of an organization to adapt to change. It aims to develop the institution as a total system, including individuals groups and the organization itself.\n\nAn essential ingredient in capacity-building is transformation that is generated and sustained over time from within; transformation of this kind goes beyond performing tasks to changing mindsets and attitudes. Sustainable Development Goal 17: Revitalizing the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development, the United Nations is committed to transformation from within. Goal 17 includes targets for capacity-building, including increasing technology and innovation in least developed countries and improving data collection and monitoring for the achievement of the SDGs themselves. Universities in particular can serve as centers of capacity-building through research, innovation and data collection and analysis.\n\n'Capacity Development' is used interchangeably with 'Capacity Building'."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/077ac241-c309-4155-b00b-b663844cc95d","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate literacy"},"definition":{"en":"Climate literacy encompasses being aware of climate change, its anthropogenic causes and implications."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba00e68b-0e44-4705-b76c-d2635df35433","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate services"},"definition":{"en":"Climate services involve the provision of climate information in such a way as to assist decision-making. The service includes appropriate engagement from users and providers, is based on scientifically credible information and expertise, has an effective access mechanism and responds to user needs (Hewitt et al., 2012)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Climate services can be described and characterized in different ways. However, they share the following common elements: '(i) they involve provision of climate information for some form of decision-making, including policy-making, be it to support adaptation, mitigation, or disaster risk management; (ii) they are driven by the needs of users, including decision-makers, indicated by terminology such as useful, of value, customised, tailored, co-developed or co-produced; and (iii) they involve dissemination or guidance for the use of science-based climate information. Such information could include climate data or knowledge based on climate data.' (Bessembinder et al., 2019).\n\nClimate services can also be used together with 'weather services' - which describe the state of the atmosphere at a given place and time. However, they differ in that climate services convey information about average weather. 'Climate services are also distinct from climate research and observations: the former focuses on serving user needs while the latter aims to further our understanding of the climate system.' (Vaughan and Dessai, 2014)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/10d543d7-6b7d-41ef-a291-dcace50791fa","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate service providers"},"definition":{"en":"Climate service providers supply climate information and knowledge. Climate service providers may operate on international, national, regional, or local levels and in a range of different sectors; they may be public or private, or some mixture of both (Vaughan and Dessai, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3ba4db71-12d1-4b70-9b73-ecb5f305451c","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate service users"},"definition":{"en":"Climate service users employ climate information and knowledge for decision making; they may or may not participate in developing the service itself. In some cases, climate information users may also pass information along to others, making them both users and providers (Vaughan and Dessai, 2014)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9f5dddd8-5c6e-4e91-b09d-2404f9b82147","prefLabel":{"en":"Indigenous knowledge (IK)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Aboroginal knowledge","Autochronous knowledge","Traditional knowledge","Tribal knowledge"]},"definition":{"en":"The understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. For many indigenous peoples, IK informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of life, from day-to-day activities to longer term actions. This knowledge is integral to cultural complexes, which also encompass language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social interactions, values, ritual and spirituality. These distinctive ways of knowing are important facets of the world’s cultural diversity (UNESCO, 2018)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Indigenous knowledge comes from a range of sources and is a dynamic mix of past ‘tradition’ and present invention with a view to the future. The view to the future is highly relevant in the context of climate change and its influence on the environment and in the context of migration of indigenous populations to more urban areas.\n\nThis knowledge is integral to cultural complexes, which also encompass language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social interactions, values, ritual, and spirituality. \n\nIndigenous knowledge is not just locally based and can be expressed and applied at regional, or even national and transnational scales."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6c2ea3b9-4331-423a-96cb-2aca3fd1a65c","prefLabel":{"en":"Knowledge co-production"},"altLabel":{"en":["Co-production"]},"definition":{"en":"Co-production is an iterative and collaborative processes involving diverse types of expertise, knowledge and actors to produce context-specific knowledge and pathways towards a sustainable future (Norström et al., 2020 in Gill et al. 2022).\n\nSource: Gill et al., 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nCo-production is a specific kind of community engagement, which represents a transition from doing things ‘to’ and ‘for’ people, to doing things ‘with’ people. It is a mindset and way of working underpinned by 5 values: valuing all participants and building on their strengths; working in networks and across silos; doing what matters for all the people involved (outcomes focus); building trusted relationships and sharing power; and enabling people to be change makers (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the context of public services, co-production is an asset-based approach that enables people providing and people receiving services to share power and responsibility, and to work together in equal, reciprocal and caring relationships. It enables people to access relevant and meaningful support when they need it; services to be effective and make a positive difference in people’s lives; and people, services and communities to become more effective agents of change. In other sectors like arts, media and retail the term “co-production” holds significantly different meanings (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nIn some contexts, co-production is synonymous with 'involvement' (when the audience or end users are citizens and community members). However, co-production differs from participation in that there is shared power and shared decision-making (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022). \n\nCo-production should also be distinguished from co-productive approaches, which may lack some of the elements of co-production but be built on the same values. Projects and programmes that are not co-production (for lack of citizen or service user involvement) might still adopt a co-productive approach, i.e. embrace the values of co-production. While this isn’t co-production, it offers multiple benefits, not least a shift in power dynamics towards greater contribution, buy-in, commitment, shared ownership, and more (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022). \n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/44252c8a-e8d0-40dd-9836-2c18cf9e11a9","prefLabel":{"en":"Local knowledge (LK)"},"definition":{"en":"The knowledge which people in each sub-national setting or community have developed over time and continue to develop with regard to their environment, culture and society (DRI Lexicon, 2023). \n\nIPCC AR6 provides an alternative definition: Local knowledge refers to the understandings and skills developed by individuals and populations, specific to the places where they live. Local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of life, from day-to-day activities to longer-term actions. This knowledge is a key element of the social and cultural systems which influence observations of, and responses to climate change; it also informs governance decisions. This definition builds on UNESCO (2018)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Local is defined in academic and public sector terms in different ways, covering different territorial scales, from community through to larger sub-national jurisdictions such as states and departments. Given the focus of this lexicon on DRI, a preference exists for smaller spatial expressions represented by terms such as community, district, and municipality. \n\nIt offers a firm basis for designing resilient strategies for infrastructure adopted at the local level. \n\nLocal knowledge is held by persons and groups with potentially different understandings of the environment and of causal relations that will influence their ways of behaving and acting. These may be contradictory and conflicting."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ff0f6abd-4f95-40ea-b243-f526bd643d63","prefLabel":{"en":"Social learning"},"definition":{"en":"A process of social interaction through which people learn new behaviours, capacities, values, and attitudes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/04f70807-191f-4c8f-ae9a-5cba7788972f","prefLabel":{"en":"Stakeholder engagement"},"definition":{"en":"Stakeholder engagement generally refers to interactions with organisations and professional bodies, who have an interest in, or influence over, an organisation’s activities. Other organisations and bodies may need to be kept informed, be invited to share their views and recommendations, or be part of collaborative relationships and partnership working (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 23 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Even though technically the public has an interest (i.e. a stake) in an organisation’s decisions, in current use they don’t tend to be included within the term “stakeholder\nengagement\" (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 23 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0df04c68-a7f8-494b-b120-8c602305caab","prefLabel":{"en":"Values and beliefs"},"definition":{"en":"Fundamental attitudes about what is important, good, and right; strongly held principles or qualities intrinsically valuable or desirable, often enshrined in laws, traditions, and religions. Examples include human rights, subsistence, and equitable distribution of costs and benefits of climate policies (Hulme, 2009, 2018; Nakashima et al., 2012; UNFCCC, 1992; UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948)."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c85e6a43-6b05-4f67-b53e-c0cef38a9ca2","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline study"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline studies"]},"definition":{"en":"A baseline study describes the situation prior to an intervention, so that progress can be assessed or comparisons made in future evaluation and research. It is also important for making decisions on what programming logic to follow (UNICEF, 2014).\n\nSource: UNICEF (2014). Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a2dbd42-3ddc-4353-bc44-bb2b3366220b","prefLabel":{"en":"Basic infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure that provides services considered fundamental for human development, growth and security (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Infrastructure which is seen as fundamental for human development and growth may change over time and geography."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1b664da0-681c-4a12-aa1a-3b1960d92fce","prefLabel":{"en":"Basic services"},"definition":{"en":"Public and private services that meet human basic needs including drinking water, sanitation, hygiene, energy, mobility, waste collection, health care, education, information and communication (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7d97816d-9b77-44ab-bf6d-547b9e971903","prefLabel":{"en":"Behavioural change"},"definition":{"en":"In this report, behavioural change refers to alteration of human decisions and actions in ways that mitigate climate change and/or reduce negative consequences of climate change impacts."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a373ab99-dd44-4de3-bd4f-d77277f25eba","prefLabel":{"en":"Biochar"},"definition":{"en":"Relatively stable, carbon-rich material produced by heating biomass in an oxygen-limited environment. Biochar is distinguished from charcoal by its application: biochar is used as a soil amendment with the intention to improve soil functions and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from biomass that would otherwise decompose rapidly (IBI, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e7fb50fa-360d-400e-acf4-72ea1c859c08","prefLabel":{"en":"Bioenergy"},"definition":{"en":"Energy derived from any form of biomass or its metabolic by-products."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d6da3c78-68bf-4675-ba52-b7ca92add8d0","prefLabel":{"en":"Bioenergy and Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (BECCS)"},"definition":{"en":"The application of Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) technology to bioenergy conversion processes. Depending on the total life cycle emissions, including total marginal consequential effects (from indirect land use change (iLUC) and other processes), BECCS has the potential for net carbon dioxide (CO2) removal from the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ca7f634e-8c09-414b-96bb-3fc8d1b9b127","prefLabel":{"en":"bioseparations"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ebd64d1b-41d4-4529-ba25-fcc126f8df84","prefLabel":{"en":"Biosphere (terrestrial and marine)"},"definition":{"en":"The part of the Earth system comprising all ecosystems and living organisms, in the atmosphere, on land (terrestrial biosphere) or in the oceans (marine biosphere), including derived dead organic matter, such as litter, soil organic matter and oceanic detritus."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/870d0c4f-7fe0-42e8-a232-bd62ba62b969","prefLabel":{"en":"Autotrophic respiration"},"definition":{"en":"Bodies of water, watercourses, ponds, lakes and storm drainage, that provide ecological and hydrological functions including evaporation, transpiration, drainage, infiltration and temporary storage of runoff and discharge."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dc835584-f30a-494e-8373-9515c96a3840","prefLabel":{"en":"Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)"},"definition":{"en":"The amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by micro-organisms (bacteria) in the bio-chemical oxidation of organic and inorganic matter in wastewater."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/940a6b35-9bb2-4805-8bc6-18c77b247c0e","prefLabel":{"en":"Biogenic carbon emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Carbon released as carbon dioxide or methane from combustion or decomposition of biomass or biobased products. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1e2b3afa-7fee-42e7-a99a-937a79ad1303","prefLabel":{"en":"Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs)"},"definition":{"en":"Organic gas-phase compounds emitted from terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that are critical in ecology and plant physiology, from abiotic and biotic stress functions to integrated components of metabolism. BVOCs are important in atmospheric chemistry as precursors for ozone (O3) and secondary organic aerosol formation. Other terms used to represent BVOCs are hydrocarbons (HCs), reactive organic gases (ROGs) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8f579630-f59c-4b78-9286-72d82d5ba6e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Biological (carbon) pump"},"definition":{"en":"A series of ocean processes through which inorganic carbon (as carbon dioxide, CO2) is fixed as organic matter by photosynthesis in sunlit surface water and then transported to the ocean interior, and possibly the sediment, resulting in the storage of carbon."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0c922fb-5c95-479a-96d0-b88c40757a83","prefLabel":{"en":"Biomass"},"definition":{"en":"Organic material excluding the material that is fossilised or embedded in geological formations. Biomass may refer to the mass of organic matter in a specific area (ISO, 2014)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/59412b4e-13af-419b-a7bb-99f37e6970f0","prefLabel":{"en":"Bioethanol"},"definition":{"en":"Ethanol produced from biomass (e.g., sugar cane or corn)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/174210b5-593e-447a-b201-51f430a0d1e5","prefLabel":{"en":"Biofuel"},"definition":{"en":"A fuel, generally in liquid form, produced from biomass. Biofuels include bioethanol from sugarcane, sugar beet or maize, and biodiesel from canola or soybeans."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc3d2996-2606-4f7a-8cfe-2355af6dcf01","prefLabel":{"en":"Traditional biomass"},"definition":{"en":"The combustion of wood, charcoal, agricultural residues and/or animal dung for cooking or heating in open fires or in inefficient stoves as is common in low-income countries."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fea6f4c5-4958-4e0b-819b-f1a6724b859d","prefLabel":{"en":"Biomes"},"definition":{"en":"Global-scale zones, generally defined by the type of plant life that they support in response to average rainfall and temperature patterns. For example, tundra, coral reefs or savannas (IPBES, 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cf95fd4f-d354-4e6a-a398-10d1fbbd4ba3","prefLabel":{"en":"Blue carbon"},"definition":{"en":"Biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management. Coastal blue carbon focuses on rooted vegetation in the coastal zone, such as tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses. These ecosystems have high carbon burial rates on a per unit area basis and accumulate carbon in their soils and sediments. They provide many non-climatic benefits and can contribute to ecosystem-based adaptation. If degraded or lost, coastal blue carbon ecosystems are likely to release most of their carbon back to the atmosphere. There is current debate regarding the application of the blue carbon concept to other coastal and non-coastal processes and ecosystems, including the open ocean."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/592ad627-6b49-48c8-8933-d354aa73c166","prefLabel":{"en":"Calcification"},"definition":{"en":"The process of biologically precipitating calcium carbonate minerals to create organism shells, skeletons, otoliths, or other body structures. The chemical equation describing calcification is Ca2+(aq) + 2HCO3−(aq) → CaCO3(s) + CO2 + H2O. Aragonite and calcite are two common crystalline forms of biologically precipitated calcium carbonate minerals that have different solubilities."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5f9d5403-c36d-4648-bf3e-2003d06e7b9e","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon cycle"},"definition":{"en":"The flow of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon in biomass, and carbon dissolved in the ocean as carbonate and bicarbonate) through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, terrestrial and marine biosphere and lithosphere. In this report, the reference unit for the global carbon cycle is GtCO2 or GtC (one Gigatonne = 1 Gt = 1015 grams; 1 GtC corresponds to 3.664 GtCO2)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2cfc66c0-6d3d-4ed9-970c-654455faf3a6","prefLabel":{"en":"13C"},"definition":{"en":"Stable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of approximately 13. Measurements of the ratio of 13C/12C in carbon dioxide (CO2) molecules are used to infer the importance of different carbon cycle and climate processes and the size of the terrestrial carbon reservoir (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4595bcf8-5bd3-4f3b-a1f9-733763be3a6a","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon dioxide (CO2)"},"definition":{"en":"A naturally occurring gas, CO2 is also a by-product of burning fossil fuels (such as oil, gas and coal), of burning biomass, of land-use changes (LUCs) and of industrial processes (e.g., cement production). It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a global warming potential (GWP) of 1."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f9dbf392-d5e6-4aaf-aa32-b689581afa14","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization"},"definition":{"en":"The enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fb8180e6-cda3-43d9-a7e2-ccc5d6800989","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon feedback"},"definition":{"en":"A climate feedback involves changes in the properties of the land and ocean carbon cycle in response to climate change. In the ocean, changes in oceanic temperature and circulation could affect the atmosphere–ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) flux; on the continents, climate change could affect plant photosynthesis and soil microbial respiration and hence the flux of CO2 between the atmosphere and the land biosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/878ef35b-b1ad-40cd-844e-6f62efd308bd","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon stock"},"definition":{"en":"The quantity of carbon in a carbon pool."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b239df56-c933-4fef-8bf5-dc9aaaf5b871","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon–climate feedback"},"definition":{"en":"A climate feedback involves changes in the properties of the land and ocean carbon cycle in response to climate change. In the ocean, changes in oceanic temperature and circulation could affect the atmosphere–ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) flux; on the continents, climate change could affect plant photosynthesis and soil microbial respiration and hence the flux of CO2 between the atmosphere and the land biosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f84466b8-25f6-45b3-a95f-9e1763d1aef9","prefLabel":{"en":"Charcoal"},"definition":{"en":"Material resulting from charring of biomass, usually retaining some of the microscopic texture typical of plant tissues; chemically it consists mainly of carbon with a disturbed graphitic structure, with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b64a5713-f465-46f2-ad86-986e92d368b3","prefLabel":{"en":"Diatoms"},"definition":{"en":"Microscopic (2–200 μm) unicellular photosynthetic algae that live in surface waters of lakes, rivers and oceans and form shells of opal. In the global ocean, marine diatom species distribution is primarily driven by nutrient availability. On regional scales, their species distribution in ocean sediment cores can be related to past sea surface temperatures (Abrantes et al., 2013)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a648b494-18ba-4994-98fb-6c228ebb974d","prefLabel":{"en":"Eutrophication"},"definition":{"en":"Eutrophication is the overabundance of nutrients in a body of water that results in harmful algal blooms, fish kills, and in some cases ecosystem collapse. It is a process driven by enrichment of water by nutrients, particularly compounds of nitrogen and/or phosphorus, leading to increased growth, primary production and biomass of algae; changes in the balance of nutrients causing changes to the balance of organisms; and water quality degradation (NOAA, 2007; UNEP, 2015).NOAA, 2007. National Estuarine Eutrophication Assessment: Update. National Centers for Coastal
Ocean Science, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Accessed 14 October 2020.
WHO, 2012. Disease information. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 19 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Blood-borne viruses are viruses that some people carry in their blood and which can be spread from one person to another. Those infected with a blood-borne virus may show little or no symptoms of serious disease, while other infected people may be severely ill. An infected person can transmit (spread) blood-borne viruses from one person to another by various routes and over a prolonged time period (HSE, no date a). The most prevalent blood-borne viruses are: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) – a virus which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease affecting the body’s immune system; and, hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) – blood-borne viruses causing hepatitis, a disease affecting the liver (NHS Ayrshire and Arran, no date). Exposure to these viruses can also occur through exposure to infected vaginal secretions, semen, and breast milk (HSE, no date a). Blood-borne viruses are transmitted by blood, or other body fluids containing a virus. This happens when the blood or fluids enter the body of a susceptible person. The rate of viral transmission varies depending on how the person has been exposed to the virus (the route of transmission), the type of virus, how much of the virus the carrier has in their body and the immune status of the exposed person (HSE, no date b). The more common routes of transmission include: sexual intercourse (common for HBV, HIV; inefficient for HCV); sharing injecting equipment; skin puncture by blood-contaminated sharp objects (e.g., needles, instruments or glass); and childbirth (i.e., the mother infects the child either before or during birth, or through breast-feeding) (All Answers Ltd, 2018). Less common routes of transmission include: contamination of open wounds (e.g., blood injuries during sporting activities); contamination of skin lesions (e.g., eczema); splashing of the mucous membranes of the eye, nose or mouth; and human bites when blood is drawn (this may be more of a problem in certain occupations, such as the prison and police service, where frontline workers may be exposed to violent behaviour) (HSE, no date b). There is also a risk of acquiring a blood-borne virus infection via blood transfusion. For example, in the UK, all blood donations are screened for HBV, HCV and HIV, meaning the risk is remote (HSE, no date b). Health care workers are at risk of infection with blood-borne pathogens because of occupational exposure to blood and body fluids. Most exposures are caused by ‘sharps’ – contaminated sharp objects, such as syringe needles, scalpels and broken glass. The three infections most commonly transmitted to health care workers are HBV, HCV and HIV (WHO, 2002). Among the 35 million health care workers worldwide, about three million receive percutaneous exposures to blood-borne pathogens each year; 2 million of those to HBV, 0.9 million to HCV and 170,000 to HIV. These injuries may result in 15,000 HCV, 70,000 HBV and 500 HIV infections. More than 90% of these infections occur in developing countries. Worldwide, about 40% of HBV and HCV infections and 2.5% of HIV infections in health care workers are attributable to occupational sharps exposures (WHO, 2002). However, other blood-borne pathogens still pose a risk: for example, in the 2013–2016 Ebola virus disease outbreak, over 890 health-care workers were infected, with a case fatality rate of 57% (Auta et al., 2017). These infections are for the major part preventable, as shown by the low rates achieved in certain countries that have engaged in serious prevention efforts, including training of health care workers, HBV immunisation, post-exposure prophylaxis and improved waste management. In addition to the disease burden caused to health care workers, the functioning of the health care system may be reduced because of impaired working capacity, especially in developing countries where the proportion of health care workers in the population is already small compared with that in developed countries (WHO, 2005)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a8cda453-be4d-4492-88b5-b5e3bd8e3cac","prefLabel":{"en":"Boundary conditions"},"altLabel":{"en":["network boundary conditions"]},"definition":{"en":"A set of mathematical conditions to be satisfied, in the solution of a differential equation, at the edges or physical boundaries (including fluid boundaries) of the region in which the solution is sought. The nature of these conditions is usually determined by the physical nature of the problem, and is a necessary part of the problem's complete formulation. Common boundary conditions for the atmosphere are that the velocity component normal to the earth's surface vanish, and that the individual derivative of pressure vanish at the upper surface. The term is also used in the context of the time evolution of an \"open\" dynamical system that interacts with other \"external\" systems. The state of the external systems must be specified as a boundary condition to infer the evolution of the dynamical system under consideration. For example, the evolution of the earth's atmospheric state requires the specification of sea surface temperature as a boundary condition (American Meteorological Society, 2024)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8f7f7309-af35-4f2c-b623-63464bf6fc67","prefLabel":{"en":"Boundary partner"},"definition":{"en":"Boundary partners are those individuals, groups, or organisations with whom the program interacts directly and with whom the program can anticipate opportunities for influence.\n\nSource: Earl, S., Carden, F., & Smutylo, T. (2001). Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The concept of boundary partners originates from the Outcome Mapping methodology developed by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC). This definition has been widely adopted and applied in sectors like climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction (DRR), especially where collaboration across science, policy, and practice is essential. The boundary partners operate at the interface (\"boundary\") between scientific, policy, and community spheres, playing a critical role in applying knowledge, facilitating collaboration, and enabling action on the ground.\n\nEarl, S., Carden, F., & Smutylo, T. (2001). Outcome Mapping: Building Learning and Reflection into Development Programs. International Development Research Centre (IDRC)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0d0330a-d732-4b63-ab35-c71b395286e1","prefLabel":{"en":"buildings"},"altLabel":{"en":["active buildings","buildings performance","buildings,","large buildings","modern buildings","public buildings","residential buildings"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/febe941d-af53-4c15-958a-e91876c2301d","prefLabel":{"en":"Business as usual (BAU)"},"definition":{"en":"The term business as usual scenario has been used to describe a scenario that assumes no additional policies beyond those currently in place and that patterns of socio-economic development are consistent with recent trends. The term is now used less frequently than in the past. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5b37fdd6-d320-46d7-af4c-a06569dfd655","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon budget"},"definition":{"en":"Refers to two concepts in the literature:(i) an assessment of carbon cycle sources and sinks on a global level, through the synthesis of evidence for fossil fuel and cement emissions, emissions and removals associated with land use and land-use change, ocean and natural land sources and sinks of carbon dioxide (CO2), and the resulting change in atmospheric CO2 concentration. This is referred to as the global carbon budget;(ii) the maximum amount of cumulative net global anthropogenic CO2 emissions that would result in limiting global warming to a given level with a given probability, taking into account the effect of other anthropogenic climate forcers. This is referred to as the Total Carbon Budget when expressed starting from the pre-industrial period, and as the remaining carbon budget when expressed from a recent specified date.\nNote 1: Net anthropogenic CO2 emissions are anthropogenic CO2 emissions minus anthropogenic CO2 removals. See also Carbon dioxide removal (CDR).Note 2: The maximum amount of cumulative net global anthropogenic CO2 emissions is reached at the time that annual net anthropogenic CO2 emissions reach zero.Note 3: The degree to which anthropogenic climate forcers other than CO2 affect the total carbon budget and remaining carbon budget depends on human choices about the extent to which these forcers are mitigated and their resulting climate effects.Note 4: The notions of a total carbon budget and remaining carbon budget are also being applied in parts of the scientific literature and by some entities at regional, national, or sub-national level. The distribution of global budgets across individual different entities and emitters depends strongly on considerations of equity and other value judgements."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e6836ff4-ef5f-4ef2-993a-5ef440aa6457","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)"},"definition":{"en":"A process in which a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial and energy-related sources is separated (captured), conditioned, compressed and transported to a storage location for long-term isolation from the atmosphere. Sometimes referred to as carbon capture and storage."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/63c42af5-a926-48ab-8a1f-6dd1c9d503ac","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)"},"definition":{"en":"Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS) but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/96d430f5-03d3-467d-bd08-1f26349a333d","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon footprint"},"definition":{"en":"Measure of the exclusive total amount of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) that is directly and indirectly caused by an activity or is accumulated over the lifecycle stages of a product (Wiedmann and Minx, 2008)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b7b28a09-641f-4254-93df-8d9c3fc82bea","prefLabel":{"en":"Household carbon footprint"},"definition":{"en":"The carbon footprint of an individual household, inclusive of the direct and indirect carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with home energy use, transportation, food provision, and consumption of other goods and services associated with household expenditures."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cf29152b-c111-4b4c-a56a-a377b7a751be","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon intensity"},"definition":{"en":"The amount of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) released per unit of another variable such as gross domestic product (GDP), output energy use or transport."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba1bac34-3baa-4d4b-b706-c07f5ad432d4","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon neutrality"},"definition":{"en":"Condition in which anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with a subject are balanced by anthropogenic CO2 removals. The subject can be an entity such as a country, an organisation, a district or a commodity, or an activity such as a service and an event. Carbon neutrality is often assessed over the lifecycle including indirect (‘scope 3’) emissions, but can also be limited to the emissions and removals, over a specified period, for which the subject has direct control, as determined by the relevant scheme.[Note 1: Carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are overlapping concepts. The concepts can be applied at global or sub-global scales (e.g., regional, national and sub-national). At a global scale, the terms carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are equivalent. At sub-global scales, net zero CO2 emissions is generally applied to emissions and removals under direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity, while carbon neutrality generally includes emissions and removals within and beyond the direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity. Accounting rules specified by greenhouse gas (GHG) programmes or schemes can have a significant influence on the quantification of relevant CO2 emissions and removals.Note 2: In some cases achieving carbon neutrality may rely on the supplementary use of offsets to balance emissions that remain after actions by the reporting entity are taken into account.]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cfb28d8f-8370-45f6-b379-478d9642b835","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon price"},"definition":{"en":"The price for avoided or released carbon dioxide (CO2) or CO2-equivalent emissions. This may refer to the rate of a carbon tax, or the price of emission permits. In many models that are used to assess the economic costs of mitigation, carbon prices are used as a proxy to represent the level of effort in mitigation policies."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c68e567d-3edb-4e74-aa07-28c60ce463c3","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon sequestration"},"definition":{"en":"The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0d1ec465-f58e-42dd-b212-e32909b92b6b","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon sink"},"definition":{"en":"Any process, activity or mechanism which removes CO2 from the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/429ede19-2311-4ac5-a96e-3f8b40a3d264","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbonaceous aerosol"},"definition":{"en":"Aerosol consisting predominantly of organic substances and black carbon."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb58232d-347f-42cc-b60e-c2a81b6867c1","prefLabel":{"en":"Cells"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8673572b-60c1-49b2-9284-f9dfffa0fcc4","prefLabel":{"en":"Cenozoic Era"},"definition":{"en":"The third and current geological Era, which began 66.0 Ma. It comprises the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary Periods."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4b9730f2-b9b7-47b4-8749-3546376a6f44","prefLabel":{"en":"Quaternary"},"definition":{"en":"The Quaternary Period is the last of three periods that make up the Cenozoic Era (66 Ma to present), extending from 2.58 Ma to the present, and includes the Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a00557a5-a148-4997-93ae-ba029e049d68","prefLabel":{"en":"Chaotic"},"definition":{"en":"A dynamical system such as the climate system, governed by non-linear deterministic equations, may exhibit erratic or chaotic behaviour in the sense that very small changes in the initial state of the system lead to large and apparently unpredictable changes in its temporal evolution. Such chaotic behaviour limits the predictability of the state of a non-linear dynamical system at specific future times, although changes in its statistics may still be predictable given changes in the system parameters or boundary conditions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/691eef27-9fb3-4971-a3aa-e04b4fde89a1","prefLabel":{"en":"Chemical"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ab17eca8-571b-46d3-82dc-5b4227dbbce2","prefLabel":{"en":"Gases"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/160fab95-a800-47e6-82ae-a452a46d9ca4","prefLabel":{"en":"Ammonia"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ammonia gas","Anhydrous ammonia","Azane","Spirit of hartshorn"]},"definition":{"en":"Ammonia (NH3) is a colourless acrid-smelling reactive gas at ambient temperature and pressure and is considered a significant public health hazard (WHO, 1986; PHE, 2019).WHO, 1986. Environmental Health Criteria 54: Ammonia. 10.4, Accidental exposure. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 2 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Ammonia is a non-flammable gas but is treated as flammable because it can form explosive mixtures with air. Ammonia dissolves readily in water. Solutions of ammonia are alkali and can be corrosive when concentrated or mixed with water. In addition to irritation symptoms, delayed onset of serious respiratory symptoms may present, including corrosive damage to the mucous membranes of both the upper and lower respiratory tract (WHO, 1986; PHE, England 2019). Although ammonia is lighter than air, the vapours from a leak will initially hug the ground. Long-term exposure to low concentrations or short-term exposure to high concentrations may result in adverse health conditions from inhalation. Prolonged exposure of containers to fire or heat may result in their violent rupturing and rocketing. Both liquid and vapours are extremely irritating, especially to the eyes (Cameo Chemicals, no date). Ammonia is an extensively used industrial chemical. It is commonly used in the production of fertilisers, fibres and plastics, and explosives and is also widely used as a cleaning and descaling agent and in food additives and as industrial refrigerant (WHO, 1986). High gaseous ammonia concentrations may be encountered locally, both in domestic and occupational environments, as a result of gaseous emissions and/or spillages of concentrated solutions, and respiratory (and skin and eye) injury may result. On a larger scale, spillage from stock or transport tanks or refrigeration plant of concentrated ammonia liquor or anhydrous ammonia would constitute severe environmental damage and would cause serious injury to people, animals, and plants in the vicinity. Owing to its low density and short bio-persistence, major spillages would be expected to disperse rapidly and not to persist in the environment (WHO, 1990). Ammonia can be stored and transported as a liquid at a pressure of 10 atm at 25°C. Ammonia dissolves readily in water where it forms, and is in equilibrium with ammonium ions (NH4+). The sum of ammonia and ammonium concentrations is termed ‘total ammonia’ and, owing to the slightly different relative molecular masses, may be expressed as ‘total ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N)’. In most waters, NH4+ predominates, but increased pH or temperature or decreased ionic strength may materially increase levels of non-ionized ammonia (WHO, 1986)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4595bcf8-5bd3-4f3b-a1f9-733763be3a6a","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon dioxide (CO2)"},"definition":{"en":"A naturally occurring gas, CO2 is also a by-product of burning fossil fuels (such as oil, gas and coal), of burning biomass, of land-use changes (LUCs) and of industrial processes (e.g., cement production). It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a global warming potential (GWP) of 1."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3027fe0e-d39f-4d34-9899-be8d1b48367f","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbon Monoxide"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas that can be poisonous to humans and is considered a significant public health hazard (WHO, 1999).WHO, 1999. Environmental Health Criteria 213: Carbon monoxide. Second Edition. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 2 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the most common and widely distributed air pollutants. It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas that is poorly soluble in water. Carbon monoxide has a slightly lower density than air. In the human body, it reacts readily with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. Small amounts of carbon monoxide are also produced endogenously. Carbon monoxide exposure is still one of the leading causes of unintentional and suicidal poisonings, and causes a large number of deaths annually (WHO, 2000). It is a product of the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels and is also produced by natural processes or by biotransformation of halomethanes within the human body. With external exposure to additional carbon monoxide, subtle effects can begin to occur, and exposure to higher levels can result in serious symptoms and death. The health effects of carbon monoxide are largely the result of the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb), which impairs the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (WHO, 1999). The total annual global emissions of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere have been estimated to be as high as 2600 million tonnes, of which about 60% are from human activities and about 40% from natural processes. Anthropogenic emissions of carbon monoxide originate mainly from the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. The largest proportion of these emissions are produced as exhaust gases from internal combustion engines, especially by motor vehicles with petrol engines. Other common sources include various industrial processes, power plants using coal, and waste incinerators. Petroleum-derived emissions have greatly increased over the past few decades. Some widespread natural non-biological and biological sources, such as plants, oceans and oxidation of hydrocarbons, give rise to the background concentrations outside urban areas. In indoor environments, space heaters fuelled with oil, gas or kerosene, gas stoves and some other combustion appliances (e.g., wood stoves), and tobacco smoking are also responsible for significant emissions of carbon monoxide (WHO, 2000)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6799af33-d814-46db-8020-17f35ecbe54d","prefLabel":{"en":"Chlorine"},"definition":{"en":"Chlorine is a reactive pale green gas with many uses including disinfection of water that is approximately three times heavier than air and has a characteristic odour similar to bleach. Most significant exposures to chlorine result from loss of containment of chlorine during storage and transport. Human exposure can result in symptoms ranging from mild irritation to rapid death related to pulmonary oedema. It is considered a significant public health hazard (adapted from IPCS, 1982 and PHE, 2019).IPCS, 1982. Environmental Health Criteria 21: Chlorine and hydrogen chloride. International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). Accessed 2 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Chlorine (chemical symbol Cl, atomic number 17) reacts violently with bases and is a corrosive, strong oxidant. It also reacts violently with combustible substances and reducing agents and most organic and inorganic compounds, causing a fire and explosion hazard. It may also combine with water or steam to produce toxic and corrosive fumes of hydrochloric acid (PHE, 2019). Chlorine is used in the disinfection of water and in the production of bleach and chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents, polyvinyl chloride and other industrial processes. Large quantities are also used in the bleaching of pulp and paper. Bleach contains sodium hypochlorite, which, if (inadvertently) mixed with acidic chemicals can result in the generation and release of chlorine gas. If chlorine is released from a tank into the air, the chlorine will evaporate very quickly, forming a highly toxic greenish-yellow cloud (ATSDR, 2010)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7aca42df-51c2-4269-9a33-fc0f749e2aab","prefLabel":{"en":"Phosphine"},"altLabel":{"en":["Hydrogen phosphide,","Phosphane","Phosphoretted hydrogen,","Phosphorus hydride,","Phosphorus trihydride,"]},"definition":{"en":"Phosphine (PH₃) is a colourless, flammable, and explosive gas at room temperature. The major uses of phosphine are as a rodenticide and fumigant for agricultural products and in the manufacture of semiconductors for the electronics industry. Exposure to low doses causes non-specific symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, diarrhoea, thirst, muscle pain, difficulty breathing and fluid in the lungs. Exposure to higher doses may cause more severe effects, even death (adapted from PHE, 2017 and CDC, 2019).CDC, 2019. Phosphine. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Accessed 20 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Phosphine (PH₃) reacts violently with air, oxygen, oxidants such as chlorine and nitrogen oxides, metal nitrates, halogens and many other substances causing fire and explosion hazard. Pure phosphine is odourless, although most commercially available grades have the odour of garlic or decaying fish. It attacks many metals. Phosphine decomposes on heating or burning, producing fumes including phosphorus oxides and liberates hydrogen when passed over heated metal (PHE, 2017a). The major uses of phosphine are as a rodenticide and fumigant for stored agricultural products such as nuts, seeds, grains, coffee and tobacco, and in the manufacture of semi-conductors for the electronics industry. Phosphine is also used in the production of some chemicals and metal alloys and is an unintentional by-product in the illegal manufacture of the drug methamphetamine. Phosphine is also used as a condensation catalyst and in the manufacture of some polymers (PHE, 2017a). Phosphine is rarely found in nature. Small amounts can be formed during the breakdown of organic matter, although it is rapidly degraded. Phosphine is released into the air via emissions from various manufacturing processes and from the use of metal phosphides (magnesium, aluminium, zinc), phosphide fumigants and pesticides (PHE, 2017a)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9fa66111-24fe-4920-88b9-74c7f493915f","prefLabel":{"en":"Heavy Metals"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f46d6f3c-4b2d-4ca2-bcf0-c7858baf866e","prefLabel":{"en":"Arsenic"},"definition":{"en":"Arsenic is a toxic heavy metal widely distributed throughout the Earth’s crust, generally as arsenic sulphide or as metal arsenates and arsenides. Human exposure to arsenic compounds represents a major public health concern as it has been associated with a range of acute and long-term adverse health effects and diseases (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Preventing Disease through Healthy Environments – Exposure to arsenic: A major public health concern. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 21 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Arsenic (chemical symbol As, atomic number 33) can be released into the atmosphere and water in the following ways: natural activities, such as volcanic activity, dissolution or desorption of minerals (particularly into groundwater), exudates from vegetation and wind-blown dusts; human activities, such as metal smelting, combustion of fossil fuels (especially coal), mining, timber treatment with preservatives and, historically, agricultural pesticide production and use; remobilisation of historic sources, such as mine drainage water; and mobilisation into drinking-water from geological deposits by drilling of tube wells (WHO, 2019). In water, arsenic occurs in one of two main forms: arsenite As(III) under reducing conditions and arsenate As(V) if the water is oxygenated. It can be released to the atmosphere, primarily as the trioxide, mainly by high-temperature processes or through volatilisation from aerated soils. In the atmosphere, it is mainly adsorbed onto particles, which are dispersed by winds and deposited on land and water (WHO, 2019). Soluble inorganic arsenic is highly acutely toxic. Intake of inorganic arsenic over a long period can lead to chronic arsenic poisoning (arsenicosis). Effects, which can take years to develop depending on the level of exposure, include skin lesions, peripheral neuropathy, gastrointestinal symptoms, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, developmental toxicity, and cancer of the skin and internal organs (IARC, 2018). Organic arsenic compounds, which are abundant in seafood, are less harmful to health and are rapidly eliminated by the body. Human exposure to arsenic and arsenic compounds can occur through environmental or occupational routes. Human exposure to elevated levels of inorganic arsenic occurs mainly through the intake of groundwater containing naturally high levels of inorganic arsenic, food prepared with this water, and food crops irrigated with high-arsenic water sources. Public health actions need to be continued to reduce human exposure to arsenic, particularly in areas with naturally high levels in groundwater (WHO, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/28b30b4f-3b6b-4d14-9364-b2a3ecd3ff48","prefLabel":{"en":"Cadmium"},"definition":{"en":"Cadmium is a toxic heavy metal which is widely distributed in the Earth’s crust (soil and rocks), air and water; however, human activity has greatly increased levels in environmental media relevant to population exposure. Human exposure to cadmium represents a major public health concern as it has been associated with a range of acute and long-term adverse health effects and diseases (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Preventing disease through healthy environments – Exposure to cadmium: A major
public health concern. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
WHO, 2010. Preventing Disease through Healthy Environments – Exposure to lead: A major public health concern. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 15 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Lead (chemical symbol Pb, atomic number 82) is found at low levels in the Earth’s crust, mainly as lead sulphide (WHO, 2010). However, the widespread occurrence of lead in the environment is largely the result of human activity, such as mining, smelting, refining and informal recycling of lead; use of leaded petrol (gasoline); production of lead-acid batteries and paints; jewellery making, soldering, ceramics and leaded glass manufacture in informal and ‘cottage’ (home-based) industries; electronic waste; and use in water pipes and solder (WHO, 2010). Other sources of lead in the environment include natural activities, such as volcanic activity, geochemical weathering and sea spray emissions, and remobilisation of historic sources, such as lead in soil, sediment and water from mining areas. As lead is a natural element, once it is released into the environment, it persists. Owing to lead’s persistence and potential for global atmospheric transport, atmospheric emissions affect even the most remote regions of the world (WHO, 2010). Acute exposures to lead may cause gastrointestinal disturbances (anorexia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain), hepatic and renal damage, hypertension and neurological effects (malaise, drowsiness, encephalopathy) that may lead to convulsions and death. Chronic exposure effects include haematological effects, such as anaemia, or neurological disturbances, including headache, irritability, lethargy, convulsions, muscle weakness, ataxia, tremors and paralysis. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable, for example, in-utero exposure of the foetus at maternal blood lead levels of less than 5 mg/dl can lead to reduced foetal growth and lower birth rate, and the mother may experience eclampsia and decreased renal function at these blood lead levels. Developing children are particularly vulnerable to lead exposure, with learning disorders and other neurological and developmental disorders occurring at blood lead levels lower than those of adults (US Department of Health and Human Services, 2012). It has been estimated that lead exposure was responsible, in 2004, for 143,000 deaths and 0.6% of the global burden of disease (expressed in disability-adjusted life years, or DALYs), taking into account mild mental retardation and cardiovascular outcomes resulting from exposure to lead. Young children absorb four to five times as much lead as adults (apart from pregnant women). Infants, young children (especially those less than 5 years of age) and pregnant women are most susceptible to the adverse effects of lead. The most critical effect of lead in young children is that on the developing nervous system. Subtle effects on intelligence quotient (IQ) are expected from blood lead levels at least as low as 5 μg/dl (50 μg/l), and the effects gradually increase with increasing levels of lead in blood (WHO, 2010)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f30ae32c-113c-400b-9607-4ae3ab545f4a","prefLabel":{"en":"Mercury"},"altLabel":{"en":["Quicksilver"]},"definition":{"en":"Mercury is a naturally occurring element that is found in air, water and soil. Exposure to mercury – even small amounts – may cause serious health problems and is a threat to the development of the foetus in utero and for children early in life (WHO, 2017).WHO, 2017. Mercury and Health. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Mercury (chemical symbol Hg, atomic number 80) exists in various forms: elemental mercury (metallic or vapour) and inorganic mercury compounds (to which people may be exposed, for example, through their occupation); and organic mercury compounds (for example, methylmercury, to which people may be exposed through their diet). These forms of mercury differ in their degree of toxicity and toxic effects (WHO, 2017). Mercury occurs naturally in the Earth’s crust (UNEP, 2018). It is released into the environment from volcanic activity, weathering of rocks and as a result of human activity. Human activity is the main cause of mercury releases, particularly coal-fired power stations, residential coal burning for heating and cooking, industrial processes, waste incinerators and as a result of mining for mercury, gold and other metals (WHO, 2017). Mercury has been used in dental amalgam for tooth fillings. Methylmercury has a history as fungicide. Organic mercury compounds are used as protective agents in biochemistry. Mercury may have toxic effects on the nervous, digestive and immune systems, and on lungs, kidneys, skin and eyes. The World Health Organization considers mercury to be one of the top ten chemicals or groups of chemicals of major public health concern. People are mainly exposed to mercury in the form of methylmercury, an organic compound, when they eat fish and shellfish that contain this compound (WHO, 2017). Once in the environment, elemental mercury can be transformed into methylmercury and consumed by phytoplankton in seawater and by sulphate-reducing bacteria in freshwater sediments. Methylmercury then bioaccumulates (the process by which an organism contains progressively higher concentrations of the substance than its surroundings) in fish and shellfish. Methylmercury also biomagnifies up food chains: for example, large predatory fish are more likely to have high levels of methylmercury as a result of eating many smaller fish that have acquired methylmercury through ingestion of plankton (WHO, 2017). Use of elemental mercury in some traditional therapies, religions and practices (e.g., Santería, Espiritismo) represents a risk of exposure due to the practice itself or from accidental spills. However, the extent of the problem is unknown. Use of mercurycontaining beauty creams, hair treatment and other cosmetic products may cause significant exposure (WHO, 2017). Health effects from mercury (WHO, 2007) are summarised as follows:"]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3469b891-0b7e-44ca-aa3b-5c933c58756f","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydrocarbons"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0d3257f-9a45-4f2b-852f-166fb9c158ca","prefLabel":{"en":"Benzene"},"definition":{"en":"Benzene is a clear, colourless, highly flammable and volatile, liquid aromatic hydrocarbon (molecular formula C6H6) with a gasoline-like odour (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Preventing disease through healthy environments: Exposure to benzene: a major public health concern. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Benzene is a stable colourless liquid at room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure. Benzene melts at 5.5°C and boils at 80.1°C; and has a characteristic aromatic odour. It has a high vapour pressure, which causes it to evaporate rapidly at room temperature, and is highly flammable. It is slightly soluble in water but miscible with most other organic solvents (IPCS, 1993). Benzene is used as a solvent in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. It also occurs naturally in petroleum products (e.g., crude oil and gasoline) at levels up to 4 g/l. The primary route of benzene exposure and subsequent toxicity is via inhalation. The highest exposures have typically been in the workplace – for example, in industries that make or use benzene. The general population may be exposed through the inhalation of contaminated air, particularly in areas of heavy automobile traffic, gas stations and areas near industrial sources. Other sources include cigarette smoking, second-hand smoke, off-gassing from building material and structural fires. People also may be exposed to benzene in contaminated drinking water and some foods (American Cancer Society, 2016; WHO, 2019). The compulsory introduction of catalytic converters on car exhausts and legislation to reduce benzene levels in car fuels has contributed to a reduction of benzene emissions. Other interventions to prevent or reduce exposures to airborne benzene include promoting the use of alternative solvents in industrial processes, developing and implementing policies and legislation to remove benzene from consumer products, discouraging domestic use of benzene-containing products, promoting building codes requiring detached garages, and implementing the World Health Organization (WHO) Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO, 2003), including providing for protection from exposure to tobacco smoke in workplaces and public areas (WHO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6f5cd9d8-4103-471c-9896-25a340d4a192","prefLabel":{"en":"Oil Pollution"},"altLabel":{"en":["Oil spill"]},"definition":{"en":"Oil pollution includes the accidental or deliberate, operational spills of oil from ships, especially tankers, offshore platforms and pipelines (Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway, no date).Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway, no date. Sources. Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Oil discharges to the marine environment may occur from natural seeps, and ocean-based and land-based sources. Examples of ocean-based discharges are oil spills from ships/tankers and offshore platforms and pipelines. Examples of land-based sources are untreated sewage and storm water, rivers, coastal industries, coastal refineries, oil storage facilities, oil terminals and reception facilities. Hydrocarbons can also enter the marine environment as gaseous air pollutants from vapour derived from loading and unloading of oil (UNEP, no date). Constant sources of a large and ongoing oil input to the marine environment include oil-polluted stormwater and sewage from municipalities, discharges from numerous sources in coastal facilities, gaseous hydrocarbons from cars and motor boats, and many more such on-land or recreational coastal activities that are not always linked to marine oil pollution (Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway, 2005). Oil spills can have strong negative environmental and socio-economic impacts (UNEP, no date). Marine and coastal habitats, wildlife species, recreational activities and fisheries, are among the resources and sectors that can be negatively affected by oil spills. Oil harms wildlife in two main ways: through toxic contamination (inhalation or ingestion) or by physical contact, for example: Oil spills also affect the coastal environment and habitats. Coral reefs and the marine organisms, especially juvenile organisms that live within and around the reefs are at risk from exposure to the toxic substances within oil as well as from smothering. On beaches oil can soak into sand and gravel. Coating on the roots of mangrove trees can kill the trees, and marsh grasses and seagrasses are also affected. Negative socio-economic impacts include decreased tourism and the closure of recreational, fishing and shellfish areas. Boats and fishing gear may be damaged and human health can be affected through direct contact or inhalation of the oil or by eating contaminated seafood (UNEP, no date). It may take several years or even decades, before an area or ecosystem has fully recovered from a major oil spill (UNEP, no date)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/74cc233c-9e41-4e12-a160-4fecd9adfdb1","prefLabel":{"en":"Other Chemical Hazards and Toxins"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a302e063-b62d-4b7d-8fd0-42e7e3ce0231","prefLabel":{"en":"Aflatoxins"},"definition":{"en":"Aflatoxins are mycotoxins – toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of mould (fungi). Aflatoxins are among the most poisonous mycotoxins and are produced by certain moulds (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) that grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains. Aflatoxins pose a serious health risk to humans and livestock (WHO, 2018a,b).WHO, 2018a. Mycotoxins. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 8 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Aflatoxins are among the most poisonous of the mycotoxins and place communities as well as individuals at risk. Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of mould (fungi). Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on many foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. Mould growth can occur either before harvest or after harvest, during storage, on/in the food itself often under warm, damp and humid conditions. Most mycotoxins are chemically stable and survive food processing (WHO, 2018a). Several hundred different mycotoxins have been identified, but the most commonly observed mycotoxins that present a concern to human health and livestock include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone and nivalenol/deoxynivalenol. Mycotoxins appear in the food chain as a result of mould infection of crops both before and after harvest. Exposure to mycotoxins can happen either directly by eating infected food or indirectly from animals that are fed contaminated feed, especially from milk (WHO, 2018a). Aflatoxins are produced by certain moulds (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) which grow in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains and the crops that are frequently affected by Aspergillus spp. include cereals (corn, sorghum, wheat, rice), oilseeds (soybean, peanut, sunflower, cotton seeds), spices (chili peppers, black pepper, coriander, turmeric, ginger) and tree nuts (pistachio, almond, walnut, coconut, Brazil nut). Large doses of aflatoxins can lead to acute poisoning (aflatoxicosis) and can be life-threatening, usually through damage to the liver (WHO, 2018a). Aflatoxins have been classified as human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, 2002)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ae22aa83-f148-47f3-829e-56103e23688b","prefLabel":{"en":"Asbestos"},"definition":{"en":"Asbestos is the term for a group of naturally occurring minerals widely used historically in building materials and other products (WHO, no date). All types of asbestos cause lung cancer, mesothelioma, cancer of the larynx and ovary, and asbestosis (fibrosis of the lungs) (WHO, no date).WHO, no date. International Programme on Chemical Safety: Asbestos. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Asbestos has current or historical commercial use due to its extraordinary tensile strength, poor heat conduction, and relative resistance to chemical attack. For these reasons, asbestos is used for insulation in buildings and as an ingredient in a number of products, such as roofing shingles, water supply lines, and fire blankets, as well as clutches and brake linings, gaskets, and pads for automobiles (WHO, no date). The main forms of asbestos are chrysotile (white asbestos) and crocidolite (blue asbestos). Other forms include amosite, anthophylite, tremolite and actinolite (WHO, no date). All forms of asbestos are carcinogenic to humans. Exposure to asbestos, including chrysotile, causes cancer of the lung, larynx, and ovaries, and also mesothelioma (a cancer of the pleural and peritoneal linings). Asbestos exposure is also responsible for other diseases such as asbestosis (fibrosis of the lungs), and plaques, thickening and effusion in the pleura (WHO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8762132b-03d3-4fe8-b4bf-b3d7102ac3ff","prefLabel":{"en":"Fluoride - Excess or inadequate intake"},"definition":{"en":"Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral to which the public are often exposed via drinking-water. Depending on dose intake fluoride may have both beneficial effects (reducing the incidence of dental caries) or negative effects (causing tooth enamel and skeletal fluorosis following prolonged high exposure) (adapted from NCBI, 2020 and WHO, no date).NCBI, 2020. PubChem Fluoride Compound Summary for CID 19800730. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Accessed 8 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Fluoride can be released into the environment in several ways: (i) natural activities, such as volcanic emissions, weathering of minerals and dissolution, particularly into groundwater; (ii) human activities, such as the production and use of phosphate fertilisers; manufacture and use of hydrofluoric acid and production of aluminium, steel and oil; and (iii) remobilisation of historic sources, such as water flow and sediment movement from aluminium production plants. It is estimated that caries of the permanent teeth is the most prevalent of all conditions assessed, with 2.4 billion people globally suffering from caries of permanent teeth and 486 million children from caries of primary teeth. Public health actions are needed to provide sufficient fluoride intake in areas where this is lacking, so as to minimise tooth decay. This can be done through drinking-water fluoridation or, when this is not possible, through salt or milk fluoridation or use of dental care products containing fluoride, and by advocating a low-sugar diet (WHO, no date). Excessive fluoride intake usually occurs through the consumption of groundwater naturally rich in fluoride, particularly in warm climates where water consumption is greater, or where high-fluoride water is used in food preparation or crop irrigation. Such exposure may lead to dental fluorosis or crippling skeletal fluorosis, which is associated with osteosclerosis, calcification of tendons and ligaments, and bone deformities. While the global prevalence of dental and skeletal fluorosis is not entirely clear, it is estimated that excessive fluoride concentrations in drinking water have caused tens of millions of dental and skeletal fluorosis cases worldwide. Although removal of excessive fluoride from drinking water may be difficult and expensive, low-cost solutions that can be applied at a local level do exist (WHO, no date). The range in intakes producing detrimental or beneficial effects are not far apart (WHO, no date). Public health actions are needed to provide sufficient fluoride intake in areas where this is lacking, so as to minimise tooth decay. This can be done through drinking-water fluoridation or, when this is not possible, through salt or milk fluoridation or use of dental care products containing fluoride. Excessive fluoride intake usually occurs through the consumption of groundwater naturally rich in fluoride, particularly in warm climates where water consumption is greater, or where high-fluoride water is used in food preparation or irrigation of crops such as rice. In these areas, means should be sought to manage intakes by providing drinking-water with a moderate (i.e., safe) fluoride level or using alternative sources of water for drinking, cooking or irrigation. Although removal of excessive fluoride from drinking-water may be difficult and expensive, low-cost solutions that can be applied at a local level do exist. The preparation of food using fluoride-rich coal also contributes to excessive fluoride intake via ingestion and inhalation (WHO, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5c2ddac4-8b9e-4c59-9988-36eb2b56261d","prefLabel":{"en":"Methanol"},"altLabel":{"en":["Carbinol","Methyl alcohol,","Wood alcohol,","Wood spirits,"]},"definition":{"en":"Methanol is a colourless fairly volatile liquid with a faintly sweet pungent odour similar to ethyl alcohol. Outbreaks of methanol poisoning arise from the consumption of adulterated counterfeit or informally produced spirit drinks (adapted from NCBI, 2020 and WHO, 2014).NCBI, 2020. PubChem Compound Summary for CID 887, Methanol. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Accessed 8 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Methanol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as primary alcohols. Methanol’s chemical formula is CH3OH. Methanol is the primary alcohol that is the simplest aliphatic alcohol, comprising a methyl and an alcohol group. It has a role as an amphiprotic solvent, a fuel, a human metabolite, an Escherichia coli metabolite and a mouse metabolite. It is an alkyl alcohol, a one-carbon compound, a volatile organic compound and a primary alcohol (NCBI, 2020). Methanol is a widely available chemical. It has many industrial applications and is also found in various household products, including varnishes, antifreeze, windscreen wash, and fuel for model aircraft. Globally, approximately 225 million litres of methanol are used each day (WHO, 2014a). Methanol has a relatively low intrinsic toxicity; however, it is metabolised to highly toxic compounds, which can cause blindness, coma and severe metabolic disturbances that can be life-threatening (WHO, 2014a). Methanol is well-absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and is also absorbed through the skin and by inhalation. Methanol is only mildly inebriating; its toxic effects arise from its metabolism to formaldehyde and formic acid. Humans have a limited ability to detoxify formic acid and this metabolite therefore accumulates and causes toxic effects. The toxic dose of methanol varies depending on the individual and on the provision of treatment. Blood methanol concentrations above 500 mg/l are associated with severe toxicity, and concentrations above 1500–2000 mg/l will lead to death in untreated patients. Because patients with methanol poisoning often need intensive medical care, outbreaks of methanol poisoning can rapidly overwhelm medical facilities (WHO, 2014a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/356e7d80-ab31-4481-932c-8eb9ff95fe2f","prefLabel":{"en":"Substandard and Falsified Medical Products"},"altLabel":{"en":["Counterfeit medicines"]},"definition":{"en":"Substandard and falsified medical products are defined as those that may cause harm to patients and fail to treat the diseases for which they were intended (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Substandard and falsified medical products. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 8 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Substandard and falsified medical products lead to loss of confidence in medicines, healthcare providers and health systems. They affect every region of the world. Substandard and falsified medical products from all the main therapeutic categories have been reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) and include medicines, vaccines and in vitro diagnostics. Anti-malarials and antibiotics are among the most commonly reported substandard and falsified medical products. Both generic and innovator medicines can be falsified, ranging from very expensive products for cancer to very inexpensive products for treatment of pain (WHO, 2018). Substandard and falsified medical products can be found in illegal street markets, via unregulated websites through to pharmacies, clinics and hospitals. An estimated one in ten medical products in low- and middle-income countries is substandard or falsified. Substandard and falsified medical products contribute to antimicrobial resistance and drug-resistant infections (WHO, 2018). Falsified medical products may contain no active ingredient, the wrong active ingredient or the wrong amount of the correct active ingredient. They are also commonly found to contain corn starch, potato starch or chalk. Some substandard and falsified medical products have been found to be toxic with either fatal levels of the wrong active ingredient or other toxic chemicals (WHO, 2018). Substandard and falsified medical products are often produced in very poor and unhygienic conditions by unqualified personnel and contain unknown impurities and are sometimes contaminated with bacteria (WHO, 2018). Substandard and falsified medical products are difficult to detect. They are often designed to appear identical to the genuine product and may not cause an obvious adverse reaction, however they often will fail to properly treat the disease or condition for which they were intended and can lead to serious health consequences including death (WHO, 2018). The WHO has adopted definitions of substandard, unregistered / unlicensed and falsified medical products (WHO, 2018):"]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ccc8fa57-e987-4980-9224-069ba7e619ee","prefLabel":{"en":"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b8410a91-d85d-4c17-8cda-c1b5fd44f847","prefLabel":{"en":"Dioxins and Dioxin-like Substances"},"definition":{"en":"Dioxins and dioxin-like substances, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and are unwanted by-products of combustion and various industrial processes, such as chlorine bleaching of paper pulp and smelting. They can travel long distances from the source of emission, and bioaccumulate in food chains These substances represent a major public health concern. They have been associated with a range of acute and long-term adverse health effects and diseases (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Preventing disease through healthy environments: Exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like substances: A major public health concern. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Dioxins and dioxin-like substances’ are three- or two-ring structures chlorinated to varying degrees. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can have up to 10 chlorine atoms substituting for hydrogen atoms, and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) can have up to eight. The compounds tend to have similar toxicity profiles and common mechanisms of action and are generally considered together as a group to set guidelines (WHO, 2019). PCDDs and PCDFs are widely present in the environment, occurring naturally, but mainly as unwanted by-products of combustion and of various industrial processes. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) was a contaminant of a herbicide (2,4,5-T) and chlorodibenzofurans (CDFs) were major contaminants of PCBs, but neither PCDDs nor PCDFs have ever been manufactured or used for commercial purposes other than for scientific research. PCBs were globally manufactured and used in the past (WHO, 2019). Although PCB manufacture is now prohibited under the Stockholm Convention, release into the environment still occurs from the disposal of large-scale electrical equipment and waste, from metallurgical uses, and from some chemical manufacture and processing (WHO, 2019). Human exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like substances has been associated with a range of toxic effects, including chloracne; reproductive, developmental and neurodevelopmental effects; immunotoxicity; and effects on thyroid hormones, liver and tooth development. Dioxins are also carcinogenic. Developmental effects are the most sensitive human health endpoint, making children – particularly breastfed infants – a population at elevated risk (WHO, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8b3ffb87-4665-4aba-97a4-d6196fad4252","prefLabel":{"en":"Hazardous Pesticide Contamination in Soils"},"altLabel":{"en":["Contaminated land","Soil contamination","Soil pollution","Special sites","‘Brownfield’ sites"]},"definition":{"en":"Hazardous pesticide contamination in soils often results from improper storage of (obsolete) agrochemicals, as a result of which pesticides are spilled in the surroundings of the storage site, where they seep into the soil or are dispersed by wind. In some cases, pesticide spillage has been ongoing for many years. Such spillage may cause serious soil or groundwater contamination. In addition, highly toxic and persistent compounds have been used in agriculture for decades to control pests and diseases, which are proven to cause harm to non-target species. Although international agreements are put in place to regulate the production and use of those highly toxic and persistent compounds they will still remain in soils for several more decades. Moreover, in some countries, the international agreements are not yet being implemented or fully implemented, and therefore toxic pesticides are still being used. When soil and groundwater are contaminated, crops, livestock and drinking water may become affected and, when they are consumed by people, health risks may occur (FAO, 2000).FAO, 2000. Assessing Soil Contamination: A reference manual. FAO Pesticide Disposal Series 8. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 29 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Human activities over thousands of years have left a legacy of polluted soils worldwide. Much of it is local soil contamination, which frequently occurs in connection with past and present industrial activities, waste management and disposal, including remnants of hazardous materials such as obsolete pesticides. The unsustainable application of pesticides in agricultural fields has also contributed to the spread of diffuse pollution in many areas (FAO, 2018). Half a million tonnes of obsolete pesticides are scattered throughout the developing world. These toxic chemicals, often stored outdoors in leaking containers, are seeping into the soil and water. Eliminating these dangerous stocks is a development priority. Rural communities cannot hope to develop if the soil and water are contaminated with pesticides. People cannot hope to prosper if they are suffering from severe illnesses caused by pesticide poisoning. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Programme on the Prevention and Disposal of Obsolete Pesticides is working to inform the world about the dangers of obsolete pesticide stocks. It collaborates with developing countries to prevent more obsolete pesticides from accumulating and assists them in disposing of their existing stockpiles (FAO, no date a). Obsolete pesticides include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, larvicides, acaricides, rodenticides, molluscides, nematocides, and aphicides. Around a thousand active ingredients are used to manufacture the wide array of pesticides in countries all over the world. Pesticide ingredients come in many thousands of different formulations. All these formulations degrade over time although some are more persistent in the environment than others. The chemical by-products that form as the pesticide deteriorates can be more toxic than the original product (FAO, no date b). Once pesticides enter soil, their fate depends on the physico-chemical characteristics of the soil, such as moisture, texture, and soil organic matter content, as well as the pesticide properties. A relatively small amount of spilled pesticides can therefore create a much larger volume of polluted soil. For example, approximately 30 tonnes of pesticides buried at a site in Yemen in the 1980s contaminated over 1500 tonnes of soil. This can pose a serious health and environmental threat to nearby communities (FAO, no date c). Every site is different. First, the extent of the contamination and the impact on the local environment must be determined. This requires an understanding of the chemical properties of the pesticides and the characteristics of the soil. Often the quantity of pesticides is unknown, and soil samples must be analysed. Depending on the results of the chemical analysis and risk assessment, there are three ways of dealing with polluted soil and water: (i) removing the contamination by excavating the soil and pumping-up of groundwater; (ii) containing the contamination by covering polluted soil with buildings, asphalt or another impermeable layer, and preventing contaminated groundwater from flowing downstream; and (iii) preventing human contact with the contamination by covering the polluted soil with clean soil, fencing-off polluted areas and closing contaminated wells (FAO, no date c). Removing pollution is more expensive than containing it, which in turn is more expensive than taking protective measures. Additionally, excavated polluted soil represents a hazardous waste that needs to be properly managed to avoid the pollution being transferred to other areas. Containment and protective measures are effective only for as long as they are maintained, and their proper maintenance may be difficult to ensure over a long period of time (FAO, no date c). The FAO has published a reference manual for assessing soil contamination to help developing countries make sound decisions about how to deal with the problem in the most cost-effective manner. The FAO is also working to develop cost-effective methods for dealing with pesticide contaminated soil in developing countries (FAO, 2000). Wherever pesticides are used, there are discarded pesticide containers. These old containers can be as dangerous as the pesticides themselves. In developing countries, they are often used to store food or water. The FAO’s Programme on the Prevention and Disposal of Obsolete Pesticides assists developing countries in dealing with these toxic containers (FAO, no date c). Despite the identification efforts conducted in many regions of the world to estimate the extent of soil pollution, the lack of a global assessment presents an obstacle to the mobilisation of economic resources to minimise soil pollution and to achieving public and private commitment to combating soil pollution. Stronger linkages between scientific evidence and decision-making processes are required to support actions to prevent, control and remediate soil pollution (FAO, 2018). Contaminated land is assessed in the context of national or state methods for deriving soil guidance values. There is no international standard. For example, Jennings (2013) compared the range of American standards with standards used elsewhere in the world. 5949 guidance values for 57 elements were identified across the US regulatory authorities and it was established that guidance values have also been published in at least 71 other United Nations member states."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/62910a45-0c50-4f9d-8162-9da8d16153bb","prefLabel":{"en":"Microplastics"},"altLabel":{"en":["Marine debris","Nanoparticles"]},"definition":{"en":"Microplastics are small plastic pieces less than five millimetres in length which can be harmful to the environment especially marine life. They originate from a variety of sources, including larger plastic debris that degrades into progressively smaller pieces (adapted from UNEP, 2016 and NOAA, no date).UNEP, 2016. Marine plastic debris and microplastics: Global lessons and research to inspire action and guide policy change. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Microplastics are routinely defined as small particles or fragments of plastic measuring less than 5 mm in length. Some microplastics are intentionally manufactured for industrial and domestic purposes (‘primary’ microplastics). These include ‘microbeads’ used in cosmetic and personal healthcare products, such as toothpaste. ‘Secondary’ microplastics are created by the weathering and fragmentation of larger plastic objects. Weathering and fragmentation are enhanced by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. These processes become extremely slow in the absence of UV radiation, as is the case in much of the ocean. Plastics marked as ‘biodegradable’ degrade more slowly in the ocean (UNEP, 2016). Nanoparticles are a form of marine debris, the significance of which is only now emerging. They are minuscule particles with dimensions of 1 to 100 nanometres (a nanometre is one millionth of a millimetre). A large proportion of the nanoparticles found in the ocean are of natural origin. It is the anthropogenic nanoparticles that are of concern. These originate from two sources: (i) nanoparticles created intentionally for use in industrial processes and cosmetics and (ii) from the breakdown of plastics in marine debris, from fragments of artificial fabrics discharged into urban wastewater, and through leaching from land-based waste sites (NOAA, 2021). Recent scientific research has highlighted the potential environmental impacts of plastic nanoparticles. For example, they appear to reduce primary production and the uptake of food by zooplankton and filter-feeders. Nanoparticles of titanium dioxide, which is widely used in paints and metal coatings and in cosmetics, are of particular concern. When nanoparticles of titanium dioxide are exposed to UV radiation from the sun, they transform into a disinfectant and have been shown to kill phytoplankton, which are the basis of primary production in the ocean. The scale of the threat from nanoparticles is unknown, and further research is required (UN, 2017). About half the global population lives within 100 km of a coastline, and population growth is greatest in that zone. This means the amount of plastic debris entering the ocean from land-based sources is likely to increase unless significant changes are made to waste management practices on land (UNEP, no date)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a1c15a20-5f0d-4c48-8b80-153d266a6752","prefLabel":{"en":"Pesticides"},"definition":{"en":"Pesticide means any substance, or mixture of substances of chemical or biological ingredients intended for repelling, destroying or controlling any pest, or regulating plant growth. Pesticides are inherently toxic, and among them, a small number of Highly Hazardous Pesticides, cause disproportionate harm to the environment and human health. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines on Highly Hazardous pesticides (UNEP, 2021) adopted the following definition:“Highly Hazardous Pesticides means pesticides that are acknowledged to present particularly high levels of acute or chronic hazards to health or environment according to internationally accepted classification systems such as WHO or Global Harmonized System (GHS) or their listing in relevant binding international agreements or conventions. In addition, pesticides that appear to cause severe or irreversible harm to health or the environment under conditions of use in a country may be considered to be and treated as highly hazardous.”Pesticide means any substance, or mixture of substances of chemical or biological ingredients intended for repelling, destroying or controlling any pest, or regulating plant growth. Pesticides are inherently toxic, and among them, a small number of Highly Hazardous Pesticides, cause disproportionate harm to the environment and human health. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines on Highly Hazardous pesticides (UNEP, 2021) adopted the following definition:
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Pesticides can also be grouped according to the types of pests which they kill: insecticides (insects); herbicides (plants); rodenticides (rodents); bactericides (bacteria); fungicides (fungi); and larvicides (larvae). A pesticide is considered to be highly hazardous if it has one (or more) of the following characteristics: Internationally accepted classification of highly hazardous pesticides"]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9110fa3f-d681-409c-8a3f-69571d3c3288","prefLabel":{"en":"Fungicides"},"definition":{"en":"Fungicides are chemicals that kill or slow the growth of fungi and their spores. They can be used on plants or other surfaces where mould or mildew grow (CDC, 2019).CDC, 2019. Pesticide Exposures. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Accessed 25 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term ‘pesticide’ is considered to embrace active ingredients in any form, irrespective of whether, or to what extent, they have been formulated for application. The term is usually associated with materials intended to kill or control pests (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc.) (WHO and FAO, 2016). Fungicides are pesticides that kill or slow the growth of fungi and their spores. They can be used to control fungi that damage plants, including rusts, mildews and blights. They might also be used to control mould and mildew in other settings. Fungicides work in a variety of ways, but most of them damage fungal cell membranes or interfere with energy production within fungal cells (NPIC, 2019). Fungi are the primary cause of crop loss worldwide. Diseases are a common occurrence on plants, often having a significant economic impact on yield and quality, thus managing diseases is an essential component of production for most crops. Broadly, there are three main reasons that fungicides are used: (i) to control a disease during the establishment and development of a crop; (ii) to increase productivity of a crop and to reduce blemishes. Diseased food crops may produce less because their leaves, which are needed for photosynthesis, are affected by the disease; and (iii) to improve the storage life and quality of harvested plants and produce. Some of the greatest disease losses occur post-harvest (APS, no date). As an example, banana and plantain (Musa spp.) are grown throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They are a key staple food in many developing countries and a source of income for subsistence farmers. Banana and plantain are attacked by different pathogens that affect plant development, cause yield losses and reduce fruit quality. From an economic point of view, banana and plantain leaf spots caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet (black Sigatoka/black leaf streak) and by M. musicola Leach ex Mulder (yellow Sigatoka), can be considered the two most serious diseases of Musa spp. Fungicides (as a xenobiotic) help to reduce the impact but fungal resistance to fungicide usage is now being recognised (FAO, 2013). People may be exposed to fungicides by breathing in, eating, or drinking the product, or by touching plants or surfaces that have recently been treated (CDC, 2019). A recent peer-reviewed paper summarised toxicologically harmful fungicides (Lopez and Sudakin, 2017). A summary of these compounds and some of the chemical incidents associated with the use of these fungicides follows. Organomercury compounds (methylmercury, phenylmercuric acetate) are a class of fungicide formulated as dusts and aqueous solutions that are used primarily as seed protectants. Although their use has been banned or greatly restricted in many countries, they are of historical importance owing to their severe toxicity in humans. Lopez and Sudakin (2017) reported that a poisoning epidemic in rural Iraq in 1971 was the result of people ingesting bread prepared from wheat treated with methylmercury – acting as a fungicide. The outbreak resulted in 50,000 exposures and at least 439 deaths. Chlorinated phenols, particularly pentachlorophenol, continue to have wide industrial application as fungicides and wood preservatives. There have been several historical accounts of acute poisoning caused by pentachlorophenol exposures. Lopez and Sudakin (2017) reported that in 1967, a cluster of cases of critical illness in a newborn nursery occurred through the misuse of sodium pentachlorophenate as an anti-mildew agent in the hospital laundry; nine poisoning cases and two fatalities were reported. Substituted benzenes including hexachlorobenzene. Lopez and Sudakin (2017) reported that although the acute toxicity from ingestion or inhalation exposure is low with hexachlorobenzene, the systemic effects from chronic exposure are well documented. They reported that an epidemic of 5000 cases of porphyria cutanea tarda was described in Turkey between 1955 and 1959, where the cause was traced to the consumption of wheat treated with a seed protectant containing 10% hexachlorobenzene. Dithiocarbamates (metam sodium, thiram, ethylene bisdithiocarbamate compounds). As a class of general- and restricted-use fungicides, the dithiocarbamates are available in a variety of formulations, including water suspensions, wettable powders, and dusts. They have many agricultural applications, including the protection of seedlings, turf, vegetables, fruits, and ornamentals from fungal growth. Compared with the known toxicity of several of the classes of fungicides described above, dithiocarbamates have considerably lower acute toxicity due to their rapid metabolism and lack of persistence in mammalian systems but have the potential to cause acute illness. Of note was the report of the clean-up of an accidental metam sodium spill into the Sacramento River where workers developed erythema, rash, itching, and scaling of the lower extremities (the areas that had come into contact with contaminated water). The same chemical spill resulted in the emergency triage of 360 individuals, most of whom had mild irritant upper airway symptoms that did not require hospitalisation. A follow-up study of adults living within 0.5 miles of the site of the accident identified 20 cases of persistent irritant-induced asthma and 10 cases of persistent asthma exacerbations (Lopez and Sudakin, 2017). Copper compounds (copper sulphate). Several copper compounds are available as fungicides for commercial use. Intentional and accidental ingestion of copper compounds has historically been a common cause of morbidity and mortality (Lopez and Sudakin, 2017). Organotin compounds are formulated as wettable and flowable powders and used throughout the world as fungicides in a variety of agricultural and industrial settings. Tributyltin oxide had been registered for use as an anti-mildew control agent in interior and exterior paints, but is now severely restricted in many countries due to its potent irritant properties. Tributyltin oxide continues to be used as an antifouling agent in marine paints, due to its ability to prevent the growth of barnacles, algae, and marine organisms (Lopez and Sudakin, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d7549c62-e9d4-4fe0-aa22-13631d765aae","prefLabel":{"en":"Insecticides"},"definition":{"en":"Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects by killing them (CDC, 2019).CDC, 2019. Pesticide Exposures. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Accessed 25 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term ‘pesticide’ is considered to embrace active ingredients in any form, irrespective of whether, or to what extent, they have been formulated for application. The term is usually associated with materials intended to kill or control pests (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc.) (WHO and FAO, 2016). Pesticides are used in many different sectors (e.g., agriculture, forestry, food industry, domestic etc.). Insecticides are classified based on their structure and function. They include:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ae20ad38-2b58-41df-a524-11313e02dc19","prefLabel":{"en":"Residue of Pesticides"},"definition":{"en":"Pesticide residue means any specified substance in food, agricultural commodities, or animal feed resulting from the use of a pesticide. The term includes any derivatives of a pesticide, such as conversion products, metabolites, reaction products, and impurities considered to be of toxicological significance (FAO and WHO, no date, 2019).FAO and WHO, no date. Codex Alimentarius. Database for Maximum Residue Limits for Pesticides in Food and Feed. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 2 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Pesticide residue refers to the pesticides that may remain on or in food after they are applied to food crops or owing to their persistence in the environment or because of other uses such as vector control to combat endemic pests such as mosquitos transmitting malaria. Risk of pesticide residues mainly concerns occupational health of field workers, food safety (consumer health) and the environment. The maximum allowable levels of pesticide residues in foods are often stipulated by national regulatory bodies and by the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) / World Health Organization (WHO) Food Standards Programme (Codex Alimentarius Commission). The following definitions are relevant to the Codex Alimentarius (FAO, no date): Pesticide: means any substance intended for preventing, destroying, attracting, repelling, or controlling any pest including unwanted species of plants or animals during the production, storage, transport, distribution and processing of food, agricultural commodities, or animal feeds or which may be administered to animals for the control of ectoparasites. The term can also include substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, fruit-thinning agent, or sprouting inhibitor and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. The term normally excludes fertilisers, plant and animal nutrients, food additives, and animal drugs. Maximum residue limit (MRL) for pesticide residues: is the maximum concentration of a pesticide residue (expressed as mg/ kg), recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to be legally permitted in or on food commodities and animal feeds. MRL setting is based on good agricultural practices data, and foods derived from commodities that comply with the respective MRLs are intended to be toxicologically acceptable. Extraneous maximum residue limit (EMRL) for pesticide residues: refers to a pesticide residue or a contaminant arising from environmental sources including former agricultural uses but excluding use of the pesticide directly or indirectly on the food or feed. It is the maximum concentration of a pesticide residue that is recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to be legally permitted or recognised as acceptable in or on a food, agricultural commodity or animal feed. Pesticides for which EMRLs are most likely to be needed are persistent in the environment for a relatively long period after uses have been discontinued and are expected to occur in foods or feeds at levels of sufficient concern to warrant monitoring. The concentration is expressed in milligrams of pesticide residue or contaminant per kilogram of the commodity (mg/kg). Note: A pesticide in food or feed is considered to be a risk for human health when above the limits established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission."]}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e8d7d28-8046-4f4f-8757-f6ddf1087bc3","prefLabel":{"en":"Chikungunya"},"definition":{"en":"Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne viral infection caused by the chikungunya virus. It causes fever and severe arthralgia (joint pain) which is often debilitating. The disease can be endemic and epidemic in countries (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Chikungunya. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 4 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne viral disease first described during an outbreak in southern Tanzania in 1952. It is an RNA virus that belongs to the Alphavirus genus of the family Togaviridae. The name ‘chikungunya’ derives from a word in the Kimakonde language, meaning ‘to become contorted’, and describes the stooped appearance of sufferers with joint pain (arthralgia) (WHO, 2020). Chikungunya virus is transmitted between humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes – mainly of the Aedes aegypti and A. albopictus species. Both species can also transmit other mosquito-borne viruses, including dengue and Zika fever viruses. The clinical picture of the infection is characterised by abrupt onset of fever frequently accompanied by arthralgia. Other symptoms include muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue and a rash usually involving the limbs and trunk (WHO, 2020). Laboratory diagnosis is via serological and/or virological testing. Serological testing may confirm the presence of antichikungunya antibodies. Immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody levels are highest three to five weeks after onset of symptoms. Virological testing may isolate the virus itself and should be performed on samples collected during the first week after onset of symptoms (WHO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7a823ff4-8712-4503-a944-802d5a4e74c7","prefLabel":{"en":"Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)"},"definition":{"en":"An organic compound that contains chlorine, carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine and is used for refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, plastic foam, insulation, solvents, or aerosol propellants. Because they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere, CFCs drift into the upper atmosphere where, given suitable conditions, they lead to ozone (O3) depletion. They are some of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) covered under the 1987 Montreal Protocol as a result of which manufacturing of these gases has been phased out, and they are being replaced by other compounds, including hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b4fa2880-83b7-4674-9ace-38719288c45e","prefLabel":{"en":"Choice architecture"},"definition":{"en":"The presentation of choices to consumers, and the impact that presentation has on consumer decision-making."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c647c63c-8a13-4f06-aa4d-7087ead91684","prefLabel":{"en":"Chronology"},"definition":{"en":"Arrangement of events according to dates or times of occurrence."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba94cd85-7d57-4c2a-9646-b52f33d92fd4","prefLabel":{"en":"Cities"},"definition":{"en":"Cities are open systems, continually exchanging resources, products and services, waste, people, ideas and finances with the hinterlands and broader world. Cities are complex, self-organising, adaptive and constantly evolving. Cities also encompass multiple actors with varying responsibilities, capabilities and priorities, as well as processes that transcend the institutional sector-based approach to city administration. Cities are embedded in broader ecological, economic, technical, institutional, legal and governance structures that enable or often constrain their systemic function, which cannot be separated from wider power relations. Urban processes of a physical, social and economic nature are causally interlinked, with interactions and feedbacks that result in both intended and unintended impacts on emissions."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/71dd483e-da2f-4bdf-a77f-2b419a85a332","prefLabel":{"en":"Built environment"},"definition":{"en":"The physical and spatial components of urban areas, including buildings, infrastructure, streetscapes, and public spaces. A key determinant of liability and climate responsiveness in arid zones."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cbb7ebdc-1bcc-4c3b-a533-8e38090bcdbf","prefLabel":{"en":"City networks"},"definition":{"en":"City networks (also municipal networks or transnational networks) are formal and informal collaborative platforms connecting municipal governments, civil society organizations, and other urban actors across jurisdictions to advance climate action and sustainable development. These transnational, national, and regional networks facilitate peer-to-peer learning, knowledge exchange, policy experimentation, and collective advocacy. Key functions include providing technical assistance, standardising reporting frameworks, mobilising finance, sharing best practices, building institutional capacity, and strengthening legitimacy for urban climate commitments. Global examples include ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), and Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy (GCoM), with many city networks also operating at regional or national scale, enabling cities of all characteristics to access expertise and resources otherwise unavailable, while creating spaces for norm-setting and innovation diffusion. (Zeppel, 2013; Jordan and Huitema, 2014; Ndebele-Murisa et al., 2020; Kona et al., 2021; Sancino et al., 2022; Ziervogel et al., 2022, 2022; Ahn et al., 2023; Kavonic and Bulkeley, 2023; Kern et al., 2024; Leal and Paterson, 2024; Wieszczeczynska et al., 2024)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0b65e843-6638-4814-bd58-9642ef1fd0b2","prefLabel":{"en":"Desirability"},"definition":{"en":"Evaluation of how acceptable, favorable, or supported climate policies or system changes are by different stakeholders including public, politicians, and affected communities to meet the needs of diverse groups for equity, justice, cultural appropriateness and societal values (Moser and Ekstrom, 2010; Eisenack et al., 2014; UN-(Habitat), 2017; UNFCCC, 2025; UNDP, n.d.)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5dadc2ee-73e2-4d3c-a05a-a5c546bcbf4a","prefLabel":{"en":"Emerging cities"},"definition":{"en":"Cities with low population growth where urban growth is taking shape in emerging areas and have lower income and limited infrastructure."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a8e00a01-2faa-4f45-be91-403a748398b9","prefLabel":{"en":"Established cities"},"definition":{"en":"High income cities with low population and economic growth, limited outward expansion, mature urban form, and strong infrastructure."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/71839fa9-6762-4f37-b478-d6a5c7c40d85","prefLabel":{"en":"Industrial symbiosis"},"definition":{"en":"A collaborative approach in which the by-products or residues from one industrial process serve as inputs for another. This concept aims to promote resource circularity and reduce environmental impact by forming integrated industrial networks that share materials, energy and information."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/934099e4-adee-4d9c-bf7c-8ec674ae158b","prefLabel":{"en":"Informality"},"definition":{"en":"The multi-dimensional practices, processes, artefacts, infrastructure, governance systems, emergent institutions, economic systems of social collectives in cities operating at various scales outside but in tandem with formal regulatory frameworks, legal protections, and institutional oversight. Informality continuously interacts with regulated systems and is understood from three lenses of a) institutional systems and rules; b) place-based characteristics of settlements in regard to housing, land security, and access to basic services and infrastructure; and c) economic activities lacking legally protected labor conditions that range from micro to meso scales of operations, often not registered but taxed in different ways.(Roberts and Sykes, 2000, Google-Books-ID: 6nEX8nothSsC; Kanbur and Ghani, 2013; Bours et al., 2014; ILO, 2024; UN-Habitat, 2024; Wicander, n.d.)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c0ae9c38-848a-49ba-ae91-376ac002fe03","prefLabel":{"en":"Managed retreat"},"definition":{"en":"Managed retreat is a form of relocation that involves the planned and coordinated movement of people, infrastructure, and assets from high-risk areas to safer locations to reduce long-term hazard exposure, emphasizing proactive risk reduction and forward-looking spatial planning."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb393fa9-dc56-4134-812e-6b834b1df1ef","prefLabel":{"en":"Market potential"},"definition":{"en":"The amount of renewable energy output expected to occur under forecast market conditions, shaped by private economic agents and regulated by public authorities. Private economic agents realize private objectives within given, perceived and expected conditions. Market potentials are based on expected private revenues and expenditures, calculated at private prices (incorporating subsidies, levies and rents) and with private discount rates. The private context is partly shaped by public authority policies."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e27b481b-2aae-4839-bdd7-ce0d2c3cf698","prefLabel":{"en":"Megacity"},"altLabel":{"en":["Large and megacities"]},"definition":{"en":"An urban agglomeration with 10 million inhabitants or more (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4ccd8287-b4b6-4e3c-b479-0a5e32dc0abc","prefLabel":{"en":"Potential"},"definition":{"en":"The possibility of something happening, or of someone doing something in the future."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/64d53974-38dd-425b-8805-e810bbd4f3a3","prefLabel":{"en":"Rapidly growing cities"},"definition":{"en":"Cities experiencing rapid population and economic growth, with most experiencing rapid horizontal expansion, and large-scale development of new urban infrastructure."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1c4015c1-1a1a-406d-b02b-0675b80e3247","prefLabel":{"en":"Solar radiation"},"definition":{"en":"Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun with a spectrum close to that of a black body with a temperature of 5770 K. The radiation peaks in visible wavelengths. When compared to the terrestrial radiation it is often referred to as shortwave radiation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/97184719-63b2-4ec8-bc25-76048fe6f8c9","prefLabel":{"en":"Solution bundles (Bundles of solutions)"},"definition":{"en":"Integrated packages combining multiple complementary interventions addressing different aspects of climate and development challenges simultaneously. Designed to maximize synergies, minimize trade-offs, and enhance overall impact. May include policy mixes, technological approaches, nature-based solutions, and behavioral change.(Flyvbjerg, 2006; Eisenhardt and Graebner, 2007; World Bank, 2013; UNFCCC, 2024; IUCN, n.d.; Yin, 2009)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/91bdae15-d765-4a4f-b492-15b71a6b74ef","prefLabel":{"en":"Sponge city"},"definition":{"en":"Urban areas with abundant natural areas or nature-based solutions intended to absorb and retain excess water for reuse when needed and prevent flooding.(Chan et al., 2018; Xiang et al., 2018; Hamidi et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2023, 2023; Lu et al., 2025)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2c03e1fd-3598-4654-9667-e0f752e9a86e","prefLabel":{"en":"Systems transition"},"definition":{"en":"The process of changing from one state to another through wholesale shifts within systems. Because of their interconnections, systems transitions involve changes in technology, infrastructure, institutions, finance, policy, practice and behaviour."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1006a305-926e-4ea3-a92e-7b7a7258ecfe","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban climate options"},"definition":{"en":"A range of potential actions, strategies, policies, and interventions available to urban areas for addressing climate change through mitigation and adaptation. Includes technological solutions, nature-based approaches, infrastructure improvements, behavioural changes, governance mechanisms, and planning measures.(Kivimaa and Kern, 2016; UN-(Habitat), 2017; Hölscher et al., 2019; UN-Habitat, n.d.-a, n.d.-b)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a130475c-0911-4a29-bfa9-949137560be3","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban practitioner"},"definition":{"en":"Urban practitioners are defined as professionals, tradespeople and community actors engaged in urban climate action, planning, and decision-making across public, private, community and civil society sectors. Urban practitioners include city officials, planners, community organisers, technical experts, trades and craftspeople, and local leaders, who develop, implement, and monitor climate mitigation and adaptation policies and strategies at city, district, and neighbourhood scales."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6da7fb85-ecef-42ee-b035-3876027bcedd","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban regeneration"},"definition":{"en":"Place-based and integrated process of planning, investment and governance that renews existing urban areas to reduce climate-related risk and vulnerability and to align mitigation and adaptation, aiming for netpositive outcomes across ecological regeneration, decarbonization and health.(Roberts and Sykes, 2000; Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016; Lak et al., 2021; IPCC, 2022; UN, 2023; Marín et al., 2025; Pérez et al., 2025)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ff528e57-4c6d-41e5-adb0-5ed8d9c1999e","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban resilience"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of urban areas to anticipate, absorb, recover from, and adapt equitably to climate and other shocks (e.g., extreme heat, flooding, water scarcity) while maintaining essential functions and supporting well-being."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/de670a90-fff8-487d-b39e-4ad233506d2a","prefLabel":{"en":"Citizen science"},"definition":{"en":"Citizen science is an important way in which diverse groups of people can participate and collaborate in research and innovation. This could include crowdsourcing data, working with volunteers to analyse existing datasets, collaborating with communities in designing research programmes, and approaches to innovation that involve diverse groups of people in the innovation process (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["It is important to highlight that “'Citizen science is a rapidly growing field, often seen as a cluster of activities under a larger umbrella of concepts, including ‘open science’ and ‘open innovation’, citizen science expands public participation in science and supports alternative models of knowledge production.” (NERC, 2022; Hecker et al., 2018).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nSource: Hecker et al., 2018. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b646435e-9ab8-413c-bcf6-3e203c8b1cb1","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate"},"definition":{"en":"In a narrow sense, climate is usually defined as the average weather, or more rigorously as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The relevant quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1c930876-11e4-43d8-9fcd-1fb831914b82","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate (change) feedback"},"definition":{"en":"An interaction in which a perturbation in one climate quantity causes a change in a second, and the change in the second quantity ultimately leads to an additional change in the first. A negative feedback is one in which the initial perturbation is weakened by the changes it causes; a positive feedback is one in which the initial perturbation is enhanced. In this Assessment Report, a somewhat narrower definition is often used in which the climate quantity that is perturbed is the global mean surface temperature, which in turn causes changes in the global radiation budget. In either case, the initial perturbation can either be externally forced or arise as part of internal variability."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b20a62b0-736f-453a-be6e-a9d8801bd11c","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate Adaptation Knowledge Exchange"},"altLabel":{"en":["climate adaptation knowledge exchange","climate change knowledge management"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/81593a7e-6a1e-4dcb-ad69-04ae748e89f7","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate change"},"definition":{"en":"A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines climate change as: ’a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition and climate variability attributable to natural causes."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6c40b84a-cfa2-4322-992f-60309abe276f","prefLabel":{"en":"Anthropogenic"},"definition":{"en":"Resulting from or produced by human activities."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84aa12c1-057a-4a53-9c86-d635dab09ae6","prefLabel":{"en":"Anthropogenic emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), precursors of GHGs and aerosols caused by human activities. These activities include the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, land use and land use changes (LULUC), livestock production, fertilisation, waste management, and industrial processes."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4010bf6f-12a8-4ecd-a40e-50eafda237d0","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate change commitment"},"definition":{"en":"Unavoidable future climate change resulting from inertia in the geophysical and socio-economic systems. Different types of climate change commitment are discussed in the literature (see subterms). Climate change commitment is usually quantified in terms of the further change in temperature, but it includes other future changes, for example in the hydrological cycle, in extreme weather events, in extreme climate events, and in sea level."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b5e2fcf9-02c6-42fd-a230-8d9c3c153f44","prefLabel":{"en":"Constant composition commitment"},"definition":{"en":"The constant composition commitment is the remaining climate change that would result if atmospheric composition, and hence radiative forcing, were held fixed at a given value. It results from the thermal inertia of the ocean and slow processes in the cryosphere and land surface."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aab924f0-31e9-4d48-80c3-d7cb82f34471","prefLabel":{"en":"Constant emissions commitment"},"definition":{"en":"The constant emissions commitment is the committed climate change that would result from keeping anthropogenic emissions constant."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/446c09c5-c93e-47b0-984a-0ae63a3f3cd7","prefLabel":{"en":"Zero emissions commitment"},"definition":{"en":"The zero emissions commitment is an estimate of the subsequent global warming that would result after anthropogenic emissions are set to zero. It is determined by both inertia in physical climate system components (ocean, cryosphere, land surface) and carbon cycle inertia. In its widest sense it refers to emissions of each climate forcer including greenhouses gases, aerosols and their precursors. The climate response to this can be complex due to the different time scale of response of each climate forcer. A specific subcategory of zero emissions commitment is the Zero CO2 Emissions Commitment which refers to the climate system response to CO2 emissions after setting these to net zero. The CO2-only definition is of specific use in estimating remaining carbon budgets."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5d3c163e-534d-4f79-a1de-423b0aeecf44","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate change knowledge portal"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c53aa41f-1e86-43ec-9ee3-bbacb9dfd663","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event)"},"definition":{"en":"The occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range of observed values of the variable. By definition, the characteristics of what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense. When a pattern of extreme weather persists for some time, such as a season, it may be classified as an extreme climate event, especially if it yields an average or total that is itself extreme (e.g., high temperature, drought, or heavy rainfall over a season). For simplicity, both extreme weather events and extreme climate events are referred to collectively as climate extremes."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7d382c92-6321-47ce-97ff-b126c8d9c27e","prefLabel":{"en":"Extreme climate event"},"definition":{"en":"The occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range of observed values of the variable. By definition, the characteristics of what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense. When a pattern of extreme weather persists for some time, such as a season, it may be classified as an extreme climate event, especially if it yields an average or total that is itself extreme (e.g., high temperature, drought or heavy rainfall over a season). For simplicity, both extreme weather events and extreme climate events are referred to collectively as climate extremes (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f2752b87-1755-4207-963d-28750edce8f3","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate feedback parameter"},"definition":{"en":"A way to quantify the radiative response of the climate system to a global surface temperature change induced by a radiative forcing. It is quantified as the change in net energy flux at the top of atmosphere for a given change in annual global surface temperature. It has units of W m-2 °C-1."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8dc17f45-43c6-4fce-9c75-00b59ee83c73","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate finance"},"definition":{"en":"There is no agreed definition of climate finance. The term ‘climate finance‘ is applied to the financial resources devoted to addressing climate change by all public and private actors from global to local scales, including international financial flows to developing countries to assist them in addressing climate change. Climate finance aims to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions and/or to enhance adaptation and increase resilience to the impacts of current and projected climate change. Finance can come from private and public sources, channelled by various intermediaries, and is delivered by a range of instruments, including grants, concessional and non-concessional debt, and internal budget reallocations."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6f5e8ad6-dfa5-4ce7-8369-23a9e9a63a79","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate funds"},"altLabel":{"en":["Multilateral climate funds"]},"definition":{"en":"Climate funds are financial resources allocated to support projects, initiatives, and policies aimed at mitigating and adapting to the impacts of climate change. These funds are channelled through various sources, including public, private, bilateral, and multilateral institutions, and are essential for facilitating the transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient future.\nSource: Carbon Collective. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c88dcbae-027e-4a99-b910-63a4c864ecb1","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation Fund"},"definition":{"en":"A Fund established under the Kyoto Protocol in 2001 and officially launched in 2007. The Fund finances adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. Financing comes mainly from sales of Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs) and a share of proceeds amounting to 2 % of the value of CERs issued each year for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects. The Adaptation Fund can also receive funds from governments, the private sector, and individuals (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/03da6ddf-055b-4434-bccb-c9ebd63f4696","prefLabel":{"en":"Global Environment Facility (GEF)"},"definition":{"en":"The Global Environment Facility, established in 1991, helps developing countries fund projects and programmes that protect the global environment. GEF grants support projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone (O3) layer, and persistent organic pollutants."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/77ead2db-3238-4c67-8005-c4858dca33b5","prefLabel":{"en":"Green Climate Fund (GCF)"},"definition":{"en":"The Green Climate Fund was established by the 16th Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) in 2010 as an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in accordance with Article 11 of the Convention, to support projects, programmes and policies and other activities in developing country Parties. The Fund is governed by a board and will receive guidance from the COP."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/93760f9d-6a41-44c5-9987-95011edb9aa8","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate information"},"definition":{"en":"Information about the past, current or future state of the climate system that is relevant for mitigation, adaptation and risk management. It may be tailored or “co‑produced“ for specific contexts, taking into account users’ needs and values."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d6babbb-5f29-4b27-bb90-eedd23a0d1c1","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate knowledge broker"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6fea9f38-12ae-4b88-aa64-c23a08cc6474","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate Outreach and Information Network"},"altLabel":{"en":["climate development and knowledge network","climate outreach and information network"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5e54dd75-11b2-4f12-a502-659267c332da","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate projection"},"definition":{"en":"Simulated response of the climate system to a scenario of future emissions or concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols and changes in land use, generally derived using climate models. Climate projections are distinguished from climate predictions by their dependence on the emission/concentration/radiative forcing scenario used, which is in turn based on assumptions concerning, for example, future socio-economic and technological developments that may or may not be realised (IPCC AR6)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/10770107-d616-47de-ae98-6812feb4fcb1","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate response"},"definition":{"en":"A general term for how the climate system responds to a radiative forcing."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3b1cb3a8-2a0a-4c7d-bffc-a836870f0e93","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate variability"},"definition":{"en":"Deviations of climate variables from a given mean state (including the occurrence of extremes, etc.) at all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be intrinsic, due to fluctuations of processes internal to the climate system (internal variability), or extrinsic, due to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (forced variability)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eee7be83-a08d-4c06-a9a2-9e1eca7ddfa7","prefLabel":{"en":"Decadal variability"},"definition":{"en":"Decadal variability refers to climate variability on decadal time scales."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d94f4ee6-595e-4734-b61c-76db9b355863","prefLabel":{"en":"Internal variability"},"definition":{"en":"Fluctuations of the climate dynamical system when subject to a constant or periodic external forcing (such as the annual cycle)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/da4f7145-a828-4609-a5ae-52670b5eabb6","prefLabel":{"en":"Natural variability"},"definition":{"en":"Natural variability refers to climatic fluctuations that occur without any human influence, that is internal variability combined with the response to external natural factors such as volcanic eruptions, changes in solar activity and, on longer time-scales, orbital effects and plate tectonics."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/887e36de-d1e4-4fbd-847f-4e215f1055b1","prefLabel":{"en":"Climatic driver (Climate driver)"},"definition":{"en":"A changing aspect of the climate system that influences a component of a human or natural system."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b4d58b6a-ae63-4e66-b2c2-a49314f5eb2e","prefLabel":{"en":"Climatic impact-driver (CID)"},"definition":{"en":"Physical climate system conditions (e.g., means, events, extremes) that affect an element of society or ecosystems. Depending on system tolerance, CIDs and their changes can be detrimental, beneficial, neutral or a mixture of each across interacting system elements and regions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5770d7e9-d56b-48cf-b31b-eb559b92265a","prefLabel":{"en":"Co-design"},"altLabel":{"en":["co-designing"]},"definition":{"en":"Co-design is a design-led process that uses creative participatory methods. It sees the design decisions forming part of any given service or project made ‘with’, not ‘for’, the people those decisions will ultimately impact upon (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nCo-design is the process in which actors from different disciplines share their knowledge about both the design process and the design content in order to create shared understanding on both aspects and to achieve the larger common objective: the new product to be designed (Kleinsmann and Valkenburg, 2008 in Steen, 2013).\n\nSource: Steen (2013). Accessed 25 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Co-design brings together lived experience and expertise, cultural knowledge and technical experience to learn from each other and make things better. It is part of wider social movements to share power, achieve justice and equity, and, importantly, to further self-determination. There are many histories and practices of co-design. There isn’t one right way (McKercher, 2005). \n\nThe terms co-design and co-creation are often used interchangeably. Sanders and Stappers (2008) take co-creation to refer to any act of collective creativity, i.e. creativity that is shared by two or more people. Co-creation is a very broad term with applications ranging from the physical to the metaphysical and from the material to the spiritual. Whereas co-design refers to the collective creativity as it is applied across the whole span of a design process.","Co-design brings together lived experience and expertise, cultural knowledge and technical experience to learn from each other and make things better. It is part of wider social movements to share power, achieve justice and equity, and, importantly, to further self-determination. There are many histories and practices of co-design. There isn’t one right way (McKercher, 2005). \n\nSource: McKercher (2025). Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nThe terms co-design and co-creation are often used interchangeably. Sanders and Stappers (2008) take co-creation to refer to any act of collective creativity, i.e. creativity that is shared by two or more people. Co-creation is a very broad term with applications ranging from the physical to the metaphysical and from the material to the spiritual. Whereas co-design refers to the collective creativity as it is applied across the whole span of a design process (Sanders and Stappers, 2008).\n\nSource: Sanders and Stappers (2008). Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nCo-design is also viewed as a component of the co-production process. The process is a cycle that includes co-planning (might be co-creating or co-commissioning), co-design and co-decision-making, co-delivery and co-implementation, and co-evaluation (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022). \n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales (2022). Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7edc62e3-2439-40bb-90d2-55806342caec","prefLabel":{"en":"CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq) emission"},"definition":{"en":"The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission that would have an equivalent effect on a specified key measure of climate change, over a specified time horizon, as an emitted amount of another greenhouse gas (GHG) or a mixture of other GHGs. For a mix of GHGs it is obtained by summing the CO2-equivalent emissions of each gas. There are various ways and time horizons to compute such equivalent emissions (see greenhouse gas emission metric). CO2-equivalent emissions are commonly used to compare emissions of different GHGs, but should not be taken to imply that these emissions have an equivalent effect across all key measures of climate change.\n[Note: Under the Paris Rulebook (Decision 18/CMA.1, annex, paragraph 37), parties have agreed to use GWP-100 values from the IPCC AR5 or GWP-100 values from a subsequent IPCC Assessment Report to report aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs. In addition, parties may use other metrics to report supplemental information on aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs.]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/672e0046-92b3-4c83-8d31-bea634892ff3","prefLabel":{"en":"CO2-equivalent emission"},"definition":{"en":"The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission that would cause the same integrated radiative forcing, over a given time horizon, as an emitted amount of a greenhouse gas (GHG) or a mixture of GHGs. The CO2-equivalent emission is obtained by multiplying the emission of a GHG by its Global Warming Potential (GWP) for the given time horizon (see Annex II.9.1 and WGI AR5 Table 8.A.1 for GWP values of the different GHGs). For a mix of GHGs it is obtained by summing the CO2-equivalent emissions of each gas. CO2-equivalent emission is a common scale for comparing emissions of different GHGs but does not imply equivalence of the corresponding climate change responses."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c2a99f07-5bfb-45fb-841e-7ba30bbe6bd6","prefLabel":{"en":"Coast"},"definition":{"en":"The land near to the sea. The term ‘coastal’ can refer to that land (e.g., as in ‘coastal communities’), or to that part of the marine environment that is strongly influenced by land-based processes. Thus, coastal seas are generally shallow and near-shore. The landward and seaward limits of the coastal zone are not consistently defined, neither scientifically nor legally. Thus, coastal waters can either be considered as equivalent to territorial waters (extending 12 nautical miles/22.2 km from mean low water), or to the full exclusive economic zone, or to shelf seas, with less than 200 m water depth."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/56ff3e1e-19ba-407a-9f9d-8bfac682a9c0","prefLabel":{"en":"Coastal erosion"},"altLabel":{"en":["Coastal landslides,","Coastal morphology","Shoreline process,"]},"definition":{"en":"Coastal erosion is the physical reduction of land mass at the coast that results from the interfacing of marine, fluvial and landsliding (driven by the interactions between groundwater and the soil or rock) processes with the coast (Mentaschi et al., 2018).Mentaschi, L., M.I. Vousdoukas, J. Pekel, E. Voukouvalas and L. Feyen, 2018. Global long-term observations of coastal erosion and accretion. Scientific Reports, 8:12876.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The coast is a dynamic environment that is subject to constantly changing energy inputs. This leads to variable process rates as reflected in the changing ratios of weathering to erosion. The land-based processes deliver sediment to the shoreline environment that marine processes mobilise and transport. The sediment may lead to local accretion. Rates of erosion reflect the consequences of environmental change (human modifications and climate change) superimposed on the natural variability in the underlying process-driven rates of erosion (Mentaschi et al., 2018). While zones of high sediment accretion mitigate against erosion in some areas, the landward movement of the coastline can be as high as several metres per year. Therefore, understanding patterns of sediment migration is fundamental to modelling coastal erosion. Processes at the coast are wide-ranging and both the marine and land processes (landsliding and fluvial processes) present hazards to coastal environments including infrastructure, business, people, and ecosystem services in the coastal zone (Wong et al., 2014; Mentaschi et al., 2018). Marine processes include tides and tidal range, tidal surges, coastal flooding, waves, tsunamis, long-shore drift and a range of types of current. Landsliding processes are comparable with on-shore processes, including falls, topples, slides and flows reflecting the local geological and groundwater conditions. While estuarine environments naturally dominate the context for the fluvial processes, anthropogenic impacts are commonly further inland. For example, Mentaschi et al. (2018) found that dams are among the most prominent contributors to erosion because they retain sediment that would otherwise naturally supply the coastal zone with beach sediment."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb35fa0b-5830-4617-b2f3-00c3578a094f","prefLabel":{"en":"Cold days/cold nights"},"definition":{"en":"Days where maximum temperature, or nights where minimum temperature, falls below the 10th percentile, where the respective temperature distributions are generally defined with respect to the 1961-1990 reference period. For the corresponding indices, see Box 2.4."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/51bca719-6718-431a-b29e-5752a77cab10","prefLabel":{"en":"Collaboration"},"altLabel":{"en":["collaborations"]},"definition":{"en":"Collaboration is a social process of knowledge building in which people work together towards clear objectives, resulting in well-defined final products, consensus, or decisions. (OECD, 2024).\n\nSource: OECD, 2024.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0685d44e-a8c2-4815-aed1-e0774737a731","prefLabel":{"en":"Collaborative research"},"definition":{"en":"Collaborative research is where academics and members of the public work together on research projects, to create knowledge collaboratively. This could be co-production (where you engage people throughout the process, from setting the research questions to sharing the results) or collaborative engagement, where you involve people in certain parts of the research programme e.g. citizen science (NERC, 2022; based on definition by NCCPE, n.d.).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nSource: NCCPE, n.d.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/924cddd1-519c-47e7-95b2-bf005e123b9a","prefLabel":{"en":"Common era (CE)"},"definition":{"en":"CE (Common Era) and BCE (Before the Common Era) are alternative names for AD (Anno Domini) and BC (Before Christ) in the Gregorian international standard calendar-year system. CE/BCE are preferred in an international context because they are neutral with respect to religion. The numbering of calendar years is the same under both terminologies. The CE began in year AD 1 and extends to the present day."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1265b455-1b4a-432b-abb8-d314a7ee2b3f","prefLabel":{"en":"Community engagement"},"altLabel":{"en":["Citizen engagement","Public engagement"]},"definition":{"en":"Community engagement refers to interactions with people who may be variously referred to as service users, citizens, customers, patients, community members, people we support, the public, etc. - depending on the cultural norms in the sector of activity (Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nEngagement is by definition a two-way process, involving interaction and listening, with the goal of generating mutual benefit (NCCPE, n.d.) \n\nSource: NCCPE, n.d.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Community engagement can be used interchangeably with public or citizen engagement. Whatever the term used, their key defining characteristic is that they are connected to the organisation as non-professionals, usually as users of a service provided by the organisation, or otherwise as members of the broader public. This means that they are less interested in the inner processes of the organisation, and more so in the effect that these would have in their lives (Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nVoluntary (third) sector organisations and groups often straddle both 'community engagement' and 'stakeholder engagement', because they represent the voices of the people they support, but also operate as organisations. For this reason the voluntary sector is key to statutory organisations achieving robust community / public engagement (Co-production Network for Wales, 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c47f32e8-25bc-40be-bfd9-b8e8926dfac9","prefLabel":{"en":"Compatible emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Earth system models that simulate the land and ocean carbon cycle can calculate carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions that are compatible with a given atmospheric CO2 concentration trajectory. The compatible emissions over a given period of time are equal to the increase of carbon over that same period of time in the sum of the three active reservoirs: the atmosphere, the land and the ocean."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2f2bf4de-7b28-49a6-a9a1-b3eb0ef0e9ef","prefLabel":{"en":"Complex systems"},"altLabel":{"en":["complex system","complex systems"]},"definition":{"en":"Systems characterized by complex interactions, where unexpected outcomes are more likely to occur. They differ from linear systems in that they have tight spacing of equipment, many common-mode connections, limited options for substitution of supplies and materials, and unfamiliar or unintended feedback loops (Aall et al., 2020)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d47d12a0-9476-4d3e-971f-c586be46c3dd","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate system"},"definition":{"en":"The global system consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate system changes in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations, orbital forcing, and anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-use change."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4f90f73f-6705-4f0a-b717-233dfc1f08c6","prefLabel":{"en":"Abrupt climate change"},"definition":{"en":"A large-scale abrupt change in the climate system that takes place over a few decades or less, persists (or is anticipated to persist) for at least a few decades and causes substantial impacts in human and/or natural systems (IPCC AR5, 2014)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0b56c5c7-332e-4311-854e-688deb1cc52b","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy system"},"definition":{"en":"The energy system comprises all components related to the production, conversion, delivery and use of energy."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d33b4a0-7889-4b73-b55b-a550e1f8c357","prefLabel":{"en":"Food system"},"definition":{"en":"All the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, and the output of these activities, including socio-economic and environmental outcomes (HLPE, 2017). [Note: Whilst there is a global food system (encompassing the totality of global production and consumption), each location’s food system is unique, being defined by that place’s mix of food produced locally, nationally, regionally or globally.]"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a7bd1c6-9f8b-41df-9024-b1f973b18a3b","prefLabel":{"en":"Food loss and waste"},"definition":{"en":"‘The decrease in quantity or quality of food’. Food waste is part of food loss and refers to discarding or alternative (non-food) use of food that is safe and nutritious for human consumption along the entire food supply chain, from primary production to end household consumer level. Food waste is recognised as a distinct part of food loss because the drivers that generate it and the solutions to it are different from those of food losses (FAO, 2015)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5fb5574a-4ed4-473c-b099-2ad29a10ab08","prefLabel":{"en":"Natural systems"},"definition":{"en":"The dynamic physical, physicochemical and biological components of the Earth system that would operate independently of human activities."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/37a81dc6-0a84-4606-9599-52bc7cc94aaf","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate refugium"},"definition":{"en":"A climate refugium is a geographic area that has had a stable climate on evolutionary time scales, or that is projected to have a stable climate into the future."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/57dca12b-abbe-425c-bb7d-4fca6078afe7","prefLabel":{"en":"Refugium"},"definition":{"en":"A refugium is a geographic area where a population found safety from some threat to its existence, for example, climate refugia or glacial refugia (refuge from glaciations)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/56d62584-ac5b-44f7-a293-e703d39a5a5b","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban Systems"},"definition":{"en":"Urban systems refer to two interconnected systems-first, the comprehensive collections of city elements with multiple dimensions and characteristics: a) encompass physical, built, socioeconomic-technical, political, and ecological subsystems; b) integrate social agent/constituency/processes with physical structure and processes; and c) exist within broader spatial and temporal scales and governance and institutional contexts; and second, the global system of cities and towns."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b6f6a2ba-592b-4f61-9e01-61e60791a7b3","prefLabel":{"en":"Consultation"},"definition":{"en":"A consultation is a formal process by which policy makers and service providers ask for the views of interested groups and individuals. Consultation documents usually include information, about which feedback is being requested. The organisation determines the questions, publishes them for a fixed time period, and gathers the results to analyse and feed into decision-making (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 25 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Consultation can be distinguished from the provision of information in that responses and feedback are sought. It also differs from participation because it’s not a two-way conversation (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nExamples of consultations may include council surveys about budgets allocation; government policy consultations; or inviting online comments on draft plans (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 25 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/82728d36-74b1-44d2-8f57-89ed221dd86d","prefLabel":{"en":"Consumption-based emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Emissions released to the atmosphere in order to generate the goods and services consumed by a certain entity (e.g., a person, firm, country, or region)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/158658ce-5c70-46cf-9bd1-9deafb54dd45","prefLabel":{"en":"Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Perineumonía contagiosa bovina","Pleuropneumonie contagieuse bovine","Контагиозная плевропневмония крупного рогатого скота","牛肺疫"]},"definition":{"en":"Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia is an infectious and contagious respiratory disease of Bovidae caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC (Mmm) (OIE, 2018).OIE, 2018. Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (infection with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC). Chapter 3.4.8. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 7 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) attacks the lungs and membranes that line the thoracic cavity (the pleura) causing fever and respiratory signs. It is manifested by anorexia, fever and respiratory signs such as dyspnoea, polypnea, cough and nasal discharges in bovines (OIE, 2018). Diagnosis requires the isolation of the aetiological agent (OIE, 2018). The name of CBPP has changed to: Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC (Mmm), but at the time of writing this had not been updated in the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Terrestrial Manual (OIE, 2018). CBPP has been unequivocally identified in Europe since the 18th century and gained a world-wide distribution during the latter half of the 19th century through cattle trade. CBPP was eradicated from many countries at the beginning of the 20th century, mostly through stamping-out strategies (UK, USA) or by vaccination campaigns followed by stamping-out strategies (Australia). Today, CBPP remains enzootic in many Sub-Saharan African countries, while in Europe the last CBPP cases were observed in Portugal in 1999. The situation in some Asian countries is unclear (OIE, 2018). The main problems for control or eradication are the frequent occurrence of subacute or subclinical infections, the persistence of chronic carriers after the clinical phase and the lack of extensive vaccine coverage. CBPP has a major impact on livestock production and a potential for rapid spread (OIE, 2018). Countries free of CBPP may pose trade restriction of domestic and wild cattle and buffaloes from countries considered infected with CBPP. CBPP-infected countries are excluded from international trade of live animals (OIE, 2018). CBPP is a disease listed by the OIE in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code (OiE, 2019). There is no evidence that humans are infected by Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides SC (Mmm) (CFSPH, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aa822393-13f9-40d0-a8d9-5e876955f318","prefLabel":{"en":"Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Pleuroneumonía contagiosa caprina","Pleuropneumonie Contagieuse Caprine","контагиозная плевропневмония коз","山羊传染性胸膜肺炎"]},"definition":{"en":"Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia is a severe disease of goats caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumonIae (Mccp). The acute form of the disease is characterised by unilateral serofibrinous pleuropneumonia with severe pleural fluid (OIE, 2018).OIE, 2018. Terrestrial Manual: Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia. Chapter 3.7.4. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 3 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is one of the most severe diseases of goats (Spickler, 2015). It was first reported in Algeria in 1873 (Samiullah, 2013). This disease, which affects the respiratory tract, is extremely contagious and frequently fatal; in some naive flocks, the morbidity and mortality rates may reach 100% (Spickler, 2015). CCPP affects goats in more than 40 countries of the world thereby posing a serious threat to goat farming around the globe (Yatoo et al., 2019). It causes major economic losses in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, where it is endemic (Spickler, 2015). CCPP is now also known to affect some species of exotic ungulate. This has raised concerns for zoos and for the conservation of some endangered species exposed to goats (Spickler, 2015). Definitive CCPP diagnosis can be difficult, as the causative agent is one of the most fastidious mycoplasmas and can be missed during routine bacteriological analysis (Spickler, 2015). CCPP is caused by Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae (Mccp) which belongs to the Mycoplasma mycoides cluster, a group of five closely related Mycoplasmas, pathogenic to ruminants (Samiullah, 2013). In goats it is manifested by anorexia, fever and respiratory signs such as dyspnoea, polypnea, cough and nasal discharges. The acute and subacute disease is characterised by unilateral sero-fibrinous pleuropneumonia with severe pleural effusion. Diagnosis is carried out by clinical and necropsy observations that should be confirmed by laboratory tests (OIE, 2018). Typical signs of CCPP are an accumulation of pleural fluid, unilateral hepatisation, adhesions, pleurisy and pleuropneumonia (Samiullah, 2013). CCPP is included in the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) list of notifiable diseases (Samiullah, 2013). CCPP-free countries may pose trade restriction of domestic and wild goat from countries considered infected with CCPP (OIE, 2019). There is no evidence that humans are infected by M. capricolum subsp. Capripneumoniae (Mccp) (Spickler, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bd3fb3b6-0573-43f2-ad80-0951101223a3","prefLabel":{"en":"Context"},"altLabel":{"en":["context-based","contexts"]},"definition":{"en":"‘Context’ is not synonymous with ‘local’; it could be national, regional, global or even scale-agnostic, but restricted to a defined set of issues. Context-based knowledge co-production also means taking into account the different needs, interests and beliefs of the different social groups who are invested in or affected by the challenge at hand (Norström et al., 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a53e72f8-63e1-412b-a26b-54887b1db057","prefLabel":{"en":"Contingent liability"},"altLabel":{"en":["Contingent libailities"]},"definition":{"en":"Potential liability that may occur in the future depending on the disaster-related outcome of a hazard impact. In disaster risk evaluations, contingent liability refers to future projected damage and loss that must be paid for by the government, individuals, private sector, or others (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Liability can arise from the need for response, reconstruction and recovery funding, insurance contracts, social assistance needs, and international agreements for compensation.\n\nThe presence and adequate accounting of contingent liabilities can often be an incentive and justification for others to reduce, avoid or transfer the risk.\""]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9dabb02f-94c4-46b1-9ce2-7e5963d0f887","prefLabel":{"en":"Corrective disaster risk management"},"definition":{"en":"Corrective disaster risk management activities address and seek to remove or reduce disaster risks which are already present and which need to be managed and reduced now. Examples are the retrofitting of critical infrastructure or the relocation of exposed populations or assets (UNDRR, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["This is achieved through intervening in hazard, exposure and vulnerability contexts seeking to eliminate, mitigate or reduce existing risk factors, and thus increasing the security of affected populations, businesses, infrastructure, livelihoods and others."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/153ff6fc-336b-4f2c-8d43-f31b7fed7a1a","prefLabel":{"en":"Cosmogenic radioisotopes"},"definition":{"en":"Rare radioactive isotopes that are created by the interaction of high-energy cosmic ray particles with atomic nuclei. They are often used as indicator of solar activity which modulates the cosmic rays’ intensity or as tracers of atmospheric transport processes, and are also called cosmogenic radionuclides."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/34cad8e7-ac30-4aba-8b69-7165cf16dd6c","prefLabel":{"en":"Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA)"},"definition":{"en":"A type of economic evaluation that compares the costs of different courses of action reaching the same outcome. In this report, CEA focuses on comparing the costs of mitigation strategies designed to meet a prespecified climate change mitigation goal (e.g., an emission-reduction target or a temperature stabilisation target)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0315f221-6235-4129-a348-29bf23812856","prefLabel":{"en":"Cost–benefit analysis"},"altLabel":{"en":["Benefit cost analysis","Cost benefit analysis","Cost-benefit analysis"]},"definition":{"en":"Monetary assessment of all negative and positive impacts associated with a given action. Cost–benefit analysis enables comparison of different interventions, investments or strategies and reveals how a given investment or policy effort pays off for a particular person, company or country. Cost–benefit analyses representing society's point of view are important for climate change decision-making, but there are difficulties in aggregating costs and benefits across different actors and across timescales (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The analysis requires quantifying and aggregating together all benefits (and costs); but often some benefits are difficult to quantify or measure in uniform units that enable them to be aggregated (such as social impacts, damage to cultural assets, damage to the environment and externalities).\n\nCost benefit analysis of investment in resilient infrastructure is also typically dependent on several key assumptions – such as the time horizon that is being evaluated, and the discount rate used to aggregate costs and benefits over time. \n\nPossible alternate assessment methods to cost benefit analysis could include multi-criteria analysis, expert elicitation methods like Delphi, cost efficiency assessments.\""]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/95d94271-df03-47d0-8361-5a6edb1db6c2","prefLabel":{"en":"Social cost benefit analysis"},"definition":{"en":"Social Cost Benefit Analysis quantifies in monetary terms the effects on social welfare. Costs to society are given a negative value and benefits to society a positive value (HM Treasury, 2022)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2dd3c92d-01b8-468b-8b4b-73b976089476","prefLabel":{"en":"Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a tick-borne viral infection caused by the CCHF virus. It causes severe viral haemorrhagic fever outbreaks and epidemics (WHO, 2013).WHO, 2013. Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 6 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus is a tick-borne virus (Nairovirus) of the Bunyaviridae family. The hosts of the CCHF virus include a wide range of wild and domestic animals such as cattle, sheep and goats. Many birds are resistant to infection, but ostriches are susceptible and may show a high prevalence of infection in endemic areas, where they have been at the origin of human cases. There is no apparent disease in these animals (WHO, 2013). The CCHF virus is transmitted to humans either by tick bites (principally ticks of the genus Hyalomma) or through contact with infected animal blood or tissues during and immediately after slaughter. Human-to-human transmission can occur from close contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected persons. Hospital-acquired infections can also occur due to improper sterilisation of medical equipment and reuse of non-sterile needles (WHO, 2013). The length of the incubation period depends on the mode of acquisition of the virus. Following infection by a tick bite, the incubation period is usually one to three days, with a maximum of nine days. The incubation period following contact with infected blood or tissues is usually five to six days, with a documented maximum of thirteen days (WHO, 2013). The disease begins with a sudden onset of influenza-like symptoms which may progress to severe bleeding and death if not treated. The case-fatality rate is 10–40% (WHO, 2019a). Laboratory diagnosis is via serological and virological testing, either detecting the microorganism itself, or the antibodies produced by the body in response to the infection (WHO, 2013). The disease was first described in the Crimea in 1944 and given the name Crimean haemorrhagic fever. In 1969 it was recognised that the pathogen causing Crimean haemorrhagic fever was the same as that responsible for an illness identified in 1956 in the Congo. The linkage of the two place names resulted in the current name for the disease and the virus."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/048671c0-dfc2-4ffe-a032-e9343aa56b11","prefLabel":{"en":"Critical Infrastructure Failure"},"definition":{"en":"Critical Infrastructure failure is defined as the failure in one or more of the physical structures, facilities, networks and other assets which provide services that are essential to the social and economic functioning of a community or society (UNGA, 2016).UNGA, 2016. Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction A/71/644. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA). Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Paragraph 18 of the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 calls for the global target of: d. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030 (UNDRR, 2015). The Sendai Framework identified as priorities for action (Priority 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction) this example of reducing critical infrastructure hazards and failures: c. To promote the resilience of new and existing critical infrastructure, including water, transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, educational facilities, hospitals and other health facilities, to ensure that they remain safe, effective and operational during and after disasters in order to provide live-saving and essential service (UNDRR, 2015). The United Nations General Assembly report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology relating to disaster risk reduction, defines the following of relevance to critical infrastructure failure: Critical infrastructure is essential for community, national, regional and global resilience. It includes water, transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, educational facilities, hospitals and other health facilities that ensure that all remain safe, effective and operational during and after disasters in order to provide lifesaving and essential services."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/85886ce2-578b-4078-92df-9d8cd7e6a6bc","prefLabel":{"en":"Cross-sectoral"},"definition":{"en":"Cross sectoral dependencies can be defined as relationships (either correlated or otherwise) between two or more sectors of the economy (Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5ada26db-882f-40e1-9944-3d1eabe017dc","prefLabel":{"en":"Cryosphere"},"definition":{"en":"The components of the Earth system at and below the land and ocean surface that are frozen, including snow cover, glaciers, ice sheets, ice shelves, icebergs, sea ice, lake ice, river ice, permafrost and seasonally frozen ground."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/75e53cc0-77b2-4a0d-9aeb-99e75ec8f04b","prefLabel":{"en":"Active layer"},"definition":{"en":"Layer of ground above permafrost subject to annual thawing and freezing (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/043bbf86-c49b-42e6-b5e7-03152b862d3b","prefLabel":{"en":"Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS)"},"definition":{"en":"There are only two ice sheets in the modern world, one on Greenland and one on Antarctica. The latter is dividedinto the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet. During glacial periods, there were other ice sheets. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e1176f64-6580-4e76-bd51-f8604b1c0af5","prefLabel":{"en":"Basal lubrication"},"definition":{"en":"Reduction of friction at the base of an ice sheet or glacier due to lubrication by meltwater. This can allow the glacier or ice sheet to slide over its base. Meltwater may be produced by pressure-induced melting, friction or geothermal heat, or surface melt may drain to the base through holes in the ice."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f9449e4c-7793-48c9-b059-170e923beb24","prefLabel":{"en":"Calving (of glaciers or ice sheets)"},"definition":{"en":"The breaking off of discrete pieces of ice from a glacier, ice sheet or an ice shelf into lake or seawater, producing icebergs. This is a form of mass loss from an ice body."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a18ddc5a-5f21-4627-98e7-d8ff337eefb8","prefLabel":{"en":"Clathrate (methane)"},"definition":{"en":"A partly frozen slushy mix of methane gas and ice, usually found in sediments."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dbc90199-45c2-4ffb-a373-adfd40f49991","prefLabel":{"en":"Deglacial or deglaciation or glacial termination"},"definition":{"en":"The period of transition from glacial conditions at the end of a glacial period to interglacial conditions characterized by a reduction in land ice volume. Gradual changes can be punctuated by abrupt changes linked to stadial/interstadial events and bipolar seesaw aspect. The last deglacial transition occurred between about 18,000 and 11,000 years ago. It encompasses rapid events such as Meltwater Pulse 1A (MWP-1A) and millennial-scale fluctuations such as the Younger Dryas."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/49ee5174-2644-4c95-a3df-0a3996d0432d","prefLabel":{"en":"Equilibrium line"},"definition":{"en":"The spatially averaged boundary at a given moment, usually chosen as the seasonal mass budget minimum at the end of summer, between the region on a glacier where there is a net annual loss of ice mass (ablation area) and that where there is a net annual gain (accumulation area). The altitude of this boundary is referred to as equilibrium line altitude (ELA)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1a8c0b6d-81a5-4fcf-8ff4-134ac8427cdd","prefLabel":{"en":"Firn"},"definition":{"en":"Snow that has survived at least one ablation season but has not been transformed to glacier ice. Its pore space is at least partially interconnected, allowing air and water to circulate. Firn densities typically are 400–830 kg m–3."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e0ca3ffe-6521-4dff-8164-d56e465b8528","prefLabel":{"en":"Frozen ground"},"altLabel":{"en":["Frost"]},"definition":{"en":"Ground frost is a covering of ice, in one of its many forms, produced by the sublimation of the water vapour on objects colder than 0°C (WMO, 1992). Ground frost occurs when the temperature of the upper layer of the soil is less than 0°C (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A ground frost refers to the formation of ice on the ground, objects or trees, whose surfaces have a temperature below the freezing point of water. During situations when the ground cools faster than the air, a ground frost can occur without an air frost. A grass frost, an un-official type of ground frost, can occur when other surfaces – such as concrete or road surfaces – do not experience a frost, due to their better ability to retain warmth. It is possible for a grass frost to occur in late spring or even early summer when the risk of more widespread frosts has disappeared (UK Met Office, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/41a9bb2c-dd21-4a8f-a5f9-f64f0f0578e0","prefLabel":{"en":"Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)/Glacier lake outburst"},"altLabel":{"en":["GLOF","Glacier lake outburst"]},"definition":{"en":"A ‘glacial lake outburst flood’ is a phrase used to describe a sudden release of a significant amount of water retained in a glacial lake, irrespective of the cause (Emmer, 2017).Emmer, A., 2017. Glacier Retreat and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). Accessed 7 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is used here to refer to the catastrophic release of a water reservoir that has formed either at the side, in front, within, beneath or on the surface of a glacier. Dam structures that impound the water reservoir may be composed primarily of glacial ice, morainic debris, or bedrock (GAPHAZ, 2017). GLOFs are characterised by extreme peak discharges, often several times in excess of the maximum discharges of hydrometeorological induced floods, with an exceptional erosion/transport potential. They can therefore turn into flow-type movements, such as GLOF-induced debris flow (Emmer, 2017; UN-SPIDER, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/70bffb75-9523-4258-8231-84d7239cd831","prefLabel":{"en":"Glacial or glaciation"},"definition":{"en":"A period characterized by the establishment of expanded ice sheets and glaciers, and associated with global mean sea level (GMSL) substantially lower than present; generally coincides with even-numbered marine isotope stages. Glacial intervals were interrupted by interglacial intervals. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) is a specific interval within the most recent glaciation, when ice sheets were near their global maximum volume (Clark et al., 2009; Gowan et al., 2021) and GMSL was nearly at its lowest level (Lambeck et al., 2014; Yokoyama et al., 2018). Local or regional glacial maxima may be diachronous, for example ranging from about 29,000 years ago and 16,000 years ago. For purposes of global synthesis, IPCC AR6 adopts a practical chronostratigraphic definition of LGM of 23,000–19,000 years BP (before 1950; chronozone level 1 of Mix et al., 2001). For modelling purposes, LGM is defined by the model time step nearest to the centre of this interval, 21,000 years ago (Kageyama et al., 2017)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d735373d-cf8e-4844-b899-05e52bab2ba0","prefLabel":{"en":"Glacial-interglacial cycles"},"definition":{"en":"Phase of the Earth’s history marked by large changes in continental ice volume and global sea level."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/429b0409-117f-4ace-b152-974103ac6391","prefLabel":{"en":"Glaciated"},"definition":{"en":"State of a surface that was covered by glacier ice in the past, but not at present."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cbe17199-69f6-4700-96ec-2819a241bbf2","prefLabel":{"en":"Glacier"},"definition":{"en":"A perennial mass of ice, and possibly firn and snow, originating on the land surface by accumulation and compaction of snow and showing evidence of past or present flow. A glacier typically gains mass by accumulation of snow and loses mass by ablation. Land ice masses of continental size (>50,000 km2) are referred to as ice sheets (Cogley et al., 2011)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cbf1d9dc-b9c2-4739-8e9b-763ca5c8cec3","prefLabel":{"en":"Outlet glacier"},"definition":{"en":"A glacier, usually between rock walls, that is part of, and drains, an ice sheet."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af295320-a578-4912-a211-f4fc81fe2134","prefLabel":{"en":"Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS)"},"definition":{"en":"There are only two ice sheets in the modern world, one on Greenland and one on Antarctica. The latter is divided into the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet. During glacial periods, there were other ice sheets."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/798510ca-c421-4da7-b119-5feab09133be","prefLabel":{"en":"Grounding line"},"definition":{"en":"The junction between a glacier or ice sheet and an ice shelf; the place where ice starts to float. This junction normally occurs over a zone, rather than at a line."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/261b2c51-8eac-4c75-ab44-c3ce617acf5a","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice age"},"definition":{"en":"An informal term for a geological period characterized by a long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth’s climate, resulting in the presence or expansion of ice sheets and glaciers. Among the Earth’s ice ages is the current Quaternary Period, characterized by alternating glacial and interglacial intervals."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/63e5e200-d6d8-44e6-868b-d33e62226a30","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice core"},"definition":{"en":"A cylinder of ice drilled out of a glacier or ice sheet to determine the physical properties of the ice body and to gain information on past changes in climate and composition of the atmosphere that are preserved in the ice or in air trapped in the ice."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/19fe516c-0882-4d68-b6e9-a3c713ef0150","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice sheet"},"definition":{"en":"An ice body originating on land that covers an area of continental size, generally defined as covering >50,000 km2, and that has formed over thousands of years through accumulation and compaction of snow. An ice sheet flows outward from a high central ice plateau with a small average surface slope. The margins usually slope more steeply, and most ice is discharged through fast-flowing ice streams or outlet glaciers, often into the sea or into ice shelves floating on the sea. There are only two ice sheets in the modern world, one on Greenland and one on Antarctica. The latter is divided into the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet. During glacial periods, there were other ice sheets."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5c5c9de0-88a7-4c57-8ed4-c415c279742b","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice shelf"},"definition":{"en":"A floating slab of ice originating from land of considerable thickness extending from the coast (usually of great horizontal extent with a very gently sloping surface), resulting from the flow of ice sheets, initially formed by the accumulation of snow, and often filling embayments in the coastline of an ice sheet. Nearly all ice shelves are in Antarctica, where most of the ice discharged into the ocean flows via ice shelves."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d120f0c-5a00-4e78-ae16-92f6e57af7e2","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice stream"},"definition":{"en":"Ice flow is the motion of ice driven by gravitational forces, ice stress or, for sea ice, wind, water currents and tide (AMS, 2012).AMS, 2012. Ice flow. Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society (AMS). Accessed 31 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Ice flow in a marine setting includes ice as glaciers which terminate in the ocean in the form of floating ice tongues or ice shelves, sea ice, and river and lake ice. Floating ice is defined as any form of ice found floating on water. The principal types of floating ice are lake ice, river ice, and sea ice which form by the freezing of water at the surface. Sea ice can occur in the form of fast ice or drift/pack ice (AMS, 2012a). Floating ice can also be found where glacier ice, which flows under gravitational forces or ice stress, terminates in the ocean. This can create floating ice in the form of floating ice tongues, which are narrow extensions of a glacier (AMS, 2012b) or floating ice shelves, thick ice formation with a fairly level surface, formed along a polar coast and in shallow bays, and inlets where it is attached to the shore (AMS, 2012c). Ice flow of marine origin is a hazard for navigation in the form of floating ice in motion and the use of ice surfaces as transport routes. This includes, icebergs which calve from marine terminating glaciers, ice jams, ice floes and ice edge."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4ff45735-9e83-41bb-817a-7e18dc4f472c","prefLabel":{"en":"Iceberg"},"definition":{"en":"Large piece of freshwater ice broken off from a glacier or an ice shelf during calving and floating in open water (at least 5 m height above sea level). Smaller pieces of floating ice known as ‘bergy bits’ (less than 5 m above sea level) or ‘growlers’ (less than 2 m above sea level) can originate from glaciers or ice shelves, or from the breaking up of a large iceberg. Icebergs can also be classified by shape, most commonly being either tabular (steep sides and a flat top) or non-tabular (varying shapes, with domes and spires) (NOAA, 2021). In lakes, icebergs can originate by breaking off shelf ice, which forms through freezing of a lake surface."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e9502433-d7c3-4459-8f71-cb512bd68567","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice–albedo feedback"},"definition":{"en":"A climate feedback involving changes in the Earth’s surface albedo. Snow and ice have an albedo much higher (up to ~0.8) than the average planetary albedo (~0.3). With increasing temperatures, it is anticipated that snow and ice extent will decrease, the Earth’s overall albedo will decrease and more solar radiation will be absorbed, warming the Earth further."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7ada04f4-5e5f-4fdb-bae5-ccd239d70e50","prefLabel":{"en":"Interglacial or interglaciation"},"definition":{"en":"A globally warm period lasting thousands of years between glacial periods within an ice age. Generally coincides with odd-numbered marine isotope stages (MIS) when mean sea level was close to present. The Last Interglacial (LIG) occurred between about 129 and 116 ka (thousand years) before present (defined as 1950) although the warm period started in some areas a few thousand years earlier. In terms of MIS, interglaciations are defined as the interval between the midpoint of the preceding termination and the onset of the next glaciation. The LIG coincides with MIS 5e. The present interglaciation, the Holocene, started at 11,700 years before 2000 CE, although global mean sea level did not approach its present position until roughly 7000 years ago."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/86aacef6-f459-44a7-abf5-21e3a7779ea4","prefLabel":{"en":"Interstadial or interstade"},"definition":{"en":"A brief period of regional climatic warming during a glacial or interglacial interval, often characterized by transient glacial retreats. Interstadials are generally of short duration (hundreds to a few thousand years) compared to glacial or interglacial intervals (lasting many thousands to tens of thousands of years). One example of a regional interstadial event is based on millennial scale warming recorded by oxygen isotope ratios in Greenland ice cores, the so called “Greenland Interstadials” (Johnsen et al., 1992)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/386dd141-ddee-4417-bab7-05b06e1b4cb6","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine isotope stage (MIS)"},"definition":{"en":"Geological periods of alternating glacial and interglacial conditions, each typically lasting tens of thousands of years as inferred from the oxygen isotope composition of microfossils from deep sea sediment cores. MIS numbers increase back in time from the present, which is MIS 1. Even-number MISs coincide with glacial periods, and odd-numbered MISs are interglacials."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/93d36108-f5a4-48af-b39f-4820482d4ef9","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine-based ice sheet"},"definition":{"en":"An ice sheet containing a substantial region that rests on a bed lying below sea level and whose perimeter is in contact with the ocean. The best known example is the West Antarctic Ice Sheet."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/732acf49-ef93-4a84-85eb-db421d31a35c","prefLabel":{"en":"Mass balance/budget (of glaciers or ice sheets)"},"definition":{"en":"Difference between the mass input (accumulation) and the mass loss (ablation) of an ice body (e.g., a glacier or ice sheet) over a stated time period, which is often a year or a season. Surface mass balance refers to the difference between surface accumulation and surface ablation."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/24af6df0-6f83-4294-aced-37c704d05ed2","prefLabel":{"en":"Ablation (of glaciers, ice sheets, or snow cover)"},"definition":{"en":"All processes that reduce the mass of a glacier, ice sheet, or snow cover. The main processes are melting, and for glaciers also calving (or, when the glacier nourishes an ice shelf, discharge of ice across the grounding line), but other processes such as sublimation and loss of wind-blown snow can also contribute to ablation. Ablation also refers to the mass lost by any of these processes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/03828db9-cc29-4365-8e99-24745bb5af3d","prefLabel":{"en":"Accumulation (of glaciers, ice sheets or snow cover)"},"definition":{"en":"All processes that add to the mass of a glacier, an ice sheet, or snow cover. The main process of accumulation is snowfall. Accumulation also includes deposition of hoar, freezing rain, other types of solid precipitation, gain of wind-blown snow, avalanching, and basal accumulation (often beneath floating ice) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/341cf93a-6504-418d-bb36-3d3aa3601a94","prefLabel":{"en":"Discharge (of ice)"},"definition":{"en":"Rate of the flow of ice through a vertical section of a glacier perpendicular to the direction of the flow of ice. Often used to refer to the loss of mass at marine-terminating glacier fronts (mostly calving of icebergs and submarine melt), or to mass flowing across the grounding line of a floating ice shelf."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/14e875b3-b196-4ec0-8ee9-0566f0151ab6","prefLabel":{"en":"Near-surface permafrost"},"definition":{"en":"Permafrost within about 3–4 m of the ground surface. The depth is not precise, but describes what commonly is highly relevant for people and ecosystems. Deeper permafrost is often progressively less ice-rich and responds more slowly to warming than near-surface permafrost. The presence or absence of near-surface permafrost is not the only significant metric of permafrost change, and deeper permafrost may persist when near-surface permafrost is absent."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/86260091-10e6-4023-9c36-e8c625d3e08a","prefLabel":{"en":"Permafrost degradation"},"altLabel":{"en":["Permafrost thaw","Permafrost degradation,"]},"definition":{"en":"Permafrost is defined as the ground that remains frozen under 0°C for a minimum of two consecutive years. Permafrost loss, also known as permafrost thaw is the progressive loss of ground ice in permafrost, usually due to input of heat. Thaw can occur over decades to centuries over the entire depth of permafrost ground, with impacts occurring while thaw progresses. During thaw, temperature fluctuations are subdued because energy is transferred by phase change between ice and water. After the transition from permafrost to non-permafrost, ground can be described as thawed (IPCC, 2019).IPCC, 2019 . Annex I: Glossary [Weyer, N.M. (ed.)]. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Accessed 21 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Permafrost includes the mineral part of the ground (rocks) as well as any organic matter and ice if it is present (IPCC, 2019). The active layer is the uppermost part of permafrost, which thaws during summer and re-freezes during winter. Permafrost currently covers around 15 million km2, or approximately 24% of the land in the Northern Hemisphere, mostly in the Arctic region, and is very sensitive to climate change (Chadburn et al., 2017). Under future climate change scenarios, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models project a gradual loss of permafrost of between 0.3 and 3.4 million km2 per °C increase in global surface air temperature (5th to 95th percentile; Burke et al., 2020). This is equivalent to a reduction of between 10% and 40% per °C in the annual mean frozen volume in the top 2 m of soil. These estimates are slightly lower than the 4.0 [-1.1; +1.0] million km2 per °C equilibrium sensitivity projected by Chadburn et al. (2017) who derived this using an observational-based relationship. The permafrost region represents a large, climate sensitive reservoir of organic carbon with approximately twice as much carbon in the soil as is currently contained in the Earth’s atmosphere. The top 3 m of permafrost soils contain 1035 ± 150 Pg C (Tarnocai et al., 2009; Hugelius et al., 2014) and could become vulnerable to decomposition under climate change. Schuur et al. (2015) suggested that between 5% and 15% of this permafrost carbon pool may be decayed and released as either carbon dioxide or methane during the 21st century, contributing to further global warming. This feedback could cause an additional warming of between 0.2% and 12% of the change in global temperature by 2100 (Burke et al., 2017). About half of below-ground carbon is stored in thermokarst landscapes vulnerable to abrupt thaw (Olefeldt et al., 2016) and has not been considered in these estimates. Therefore, these estimates may well be a substantial underestimation of carbon emissions from thawing permafrost (Turetsky et al., 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e837fa8b-f717-4e4e-acbe-4cbe3000d6fc","prefLabel":{"en":"Permafrost thaw"},"definition":{"en":"Progressive loss of ground ice in permafrost, usually due to input of heat. Thaw can occur over decades to centuries over the entire depth of permafrost ground, with impacts occurring while thaw progresses. During thaw, temperature fluctuations are subdued because energy is transferred by phase change between ice and water. After the transition from permafrost to non-permafrost, ground can be described as thawed."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/771539cb-f73e-4295-8062-80d92da36958","prefLabel":{"en":"Polar amplification"},"definition":{"en":"Polar amplification describes the phenomenon where surface temperature change at high latitudes exceeds the global average surface temperature change. The terms Arctic amplification or Antarctic amplification are used when describing the phenomenon occurring at one of the poles."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4db315c6-cc48-4ecc-ab3d-a4597c74618e","prefLabel":{"en":"Rapid dynamical change (of glaciers or ice sheets)"},"definition":{"en":"Changes in glacier or ice sheet mass controlled by changes in flow speed and discharge rather than by accumulation or ablation. This can result in a rate of mass change larger than that due to any imbalance between accumulation and ablation. Rapid dynamical change may be initiated by a climatic trigger, such as incursion of warm ocean water beneath an ice shelf, or thinning of a grounded tide-water terminus, which may lead to reactions within the glacier system that may result in rapid ice loss."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4edcd08c-5ec2-40d4-bee2-dfa46ae5d08e","prefLabel":{"en":"Rock glacier"},"definition":{"en":"A debris landform (mass of rock fragments and finer material that contains either an ice core or an ice-cemented matrix) generated by a former or current gravity-driven creep of permafrost in mountain slopes (Harris et al., 1988; Giardino et al., 2011; IPA-RG, 2020). It is detectable in the landscape due to the occurrence of (i) a steep slope delimiting the terminal part, (ii) generally well-defined lateral margins in a continuation of the front, and (iii) transversal or longitudinal ridges and furrows (ridge and furrow topography). These are geomorphological indicators of the occurrence of permafrost conditions. Although it is an ice storage feature, it is not a type of glacier since it does not originate at the surface by the recrystallization of snow."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cfb344df-b583-47b0-9927-f3f909cb5b56","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea ice"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ice floes,","Pack ice"]},"definition":{"en":"Ice found at the sea surface that has originated from the freezing of seawater. Sea ice may be discontinuous pieces (ice floes) moved on the ocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a motionless sheet attached to the coast (land-fast ice). Sea ice concentration is the fraction of the ocean covered by ice. Sea ice less than one year old is called first-year ice. Perennial ice is sea ice that survives at least one summer. It may be subdivided into second-year ice and multi-year ice, where multi-year ice has survived at least two summers."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The presence of sea ice in polar and subpolar oceans is a defining environmental factor that interacts with weather and climate and impacts on the ecology and human activities in these regions. Sea ice is also a significant natural hazard, both through direct interaction with assets and infrastructure and through the indirect impacts of variability and rapid changes in its distribution, in particular in Arctic and subarctic regions. There are three types of sea-ice hazard: broad, long-term hazards and risks associated with a rapid reduction in (summer) ice volume and extent; near-term hazards resulting from changes in sea-ice extent and dynamics such as increased coastal erosion and threats to coastal infrastructure; and immediate risks and the potential for disasters derived from the combination of sea-ice hazards and human activities such as shipping or offshore resource development (Eicken and Mahoney, 2015). Owing to a wide range of possible causes, preventing disasters and mitigating hazards requires approaches that address a multitude of factors. Hazard and risk maps are one option to help in the long-term planning and coordination of emergency response assets. Such maps do not appear to be available at the regional scale in the Arctic, although national ice forecasting services may generate local maps that indicate ice severity as a hazard indicator. For example, the Chinese Marine Environmental Forecasting Center’s Ice Severity Zones (Zhang et al., 2013) or the Barnett Ice Severity Index used in the United States (Eicken et al., 2009; Eicken and Mahoney, 2015). Ice crystals form at the surface of the ocean mixed layer. Under sustained heat loss these ice crystals aggregate and can form a solid layer and up to several metres thick. During this process the solid ice expels salt (brine rejection), which increases the salinity of the underlying water and can initiate convective mixing in the ocean. In a few places where this cold, salty water is dense enough, it can sink via overflowing plumes along the bottom topography to reach the ocean abyss. This newly formed dense water generally flows slowly at depth towards the equator. A thick sea-ice layer restricts wind and wave action near coastlines, lessening coastal erosion and protecting ice shelves. Sea ice also creates an insulating cap across the ocean surface, which reduces evaporation and heat loss to the atmosphere. As a result, the weather over ice-covered areas tends to be colder and drier than it would be without ice (Scott and Hansem, 2016)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/96f4e8f1-771c-442f-a2e7-6757ea6f6b16","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea ice area (SIA)"},"definition":{"en":"Sea ice area is the area covered by sea ice. In contrast to sea ice extent, it is a linear measure of sea ice coverage that does not depend on grid resolution."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/710a8475-b351-4134-a2e5-8bc16adad46a","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea ice concentration"},"definition":{"en":"Sea ice concentration is the fraction of the ocean covered by ice."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5cbf5ff6-ce3f-4319-b25b-926a70e0a46b","prefLabel":{"en":"Snow cover"},"definition":{"en":"Snow cover refers to all the snow that has accumulated on the ground at a given time (UNESCO/IASH/WMO, 1970)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af7058c9-e258-4882-9c74-8147c3e6c152","prefLabel":{"en":"Snow cover duration (SCD)"},"definition":{"en":"How long snow continuously remains on the land surface, or the period between snow-on and snow-off dates."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73fdee30-73d8-40a1-9fb1-59e43b019958","prefLabel":{"en":"Snow water equivalent (SWE)"},"definition":{"en":"The depth of liquid water that would result if a mass of snow melted completely."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/77ba0a53-a5d9-401b-8ec0-3a31147d5b90","prefLabel":{"en":"Surface mass balance (SMB)"},"definition":{"en":"Surface mass balance refers to the difference between surface accumulation and surface ablation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b4b938c7-576e-4a2e-b3ed-eb20ebec63a6","prefLabel":{"en":"Talik"},"definition":{"en":"A layer or body of unfrozen ground in a permafrost area due to a local anomaly in thermal, hydrological, hydrogeological or hydrochemical conditions (IPA, 2005)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0e9c6bea-625a-4605-b3d2-df52cfcad370","prefLabel":{"en":"Thaw"},"definition":{"en":"Thaw is the melting of snow or ice at the Earth’s surface due to a temperature rise above 0°C (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Additional definitions of thaw include: To melt a substance, ice for example, by warming it to a temperature greater than the melting point of the substance, or to have frozen contents melted (AMS, 2012). To free something from the binding action of ice by warming it to a temperature above the melting point of ice (AMS, 2012). A warm spell when ice and snow melt, for example, ‘January thaw’ (AMS, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/afc0e85d-2835-4dde-ae25-b57380e9ca3d","prefLabel":{"en":"Thermokarst"},"definition":{"en":"Process by which characteristic landforms result from thawing of ice-rich permafrost or melting of massive ice (IPA, 2005)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58a123a7-45af-4b78-822d-faffcd21abc7","prefLabel":{"en":"Cryptosporidium (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Crypto"]},"definition":{"en":"Cryptosporidium is a microscopic parasite that causes the watery diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis (WHO, 2013).WHO, 2013. Preventing cryptosporidiosis: the need for safe drinking water. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 28 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Cryptosporidiosis is a disease that causes watery diarrhoea. It is caused by microscopic germs – parasites called Cryptosporidium. Both the parasite and the disease are commonly known as ‘Crypto’ (CDC, 2017). Although cryptosporidiosis can affect all people, some groups are likely to develop more serious illness. For people with weakened immune systems, symptoms can be severe and could lead to serious or life-threatening illness. Approximately 20 species of Cryptosporidium infect animals, some of which also infect humans. The parasite is protected by an outer shell that allows it to survive outside the body for long periods and makes it very resistant to chlorine disinfection (CDC, 2017). Symptoms of cryptosporidiosis generally begin two to ten days (average seven days) after becoming infected with the parasite. They include watery diarrhoea (the most common symptom), stomach cramps or pain, dehydration, nausea, vomiting, fever and weight loss. Some people can shed Cryptosporidiosia despite being asymptomatic (CDC, 2017). Symptoms usually last about one to two weeks (with a range of a few days to a month or more) in persons with healthy immune systems. Occasionally, people may experience a recurrence of symptoms after a brief period of recovery before the illness ends. Symptoms can come and go for up to 30 days. While the small intestine is the site most commonly affected, in immunocompromised persons Cryptosporidium infections may also affect other areas of the digestive or respiratory tract. The risk of developing a severe disease may differ depending on each person’s degree of immune suppression (CDC, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d6e6b2f0-d8b9-4693-83c5-8e437c78df24","prefLabel":{"en":"Cumulative emissions"},"definition":{"en":"The total amount of emissions released over a specified period of time."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f4e2ad47-dba5-40a3-9f91-2fb35a207a7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Cysticercosis"},"altLabel":{"en":["Taeniasis"]},"definition":{"en":"Cysticercosis is a preventable intestinal infection in humans and animals caused by the tapeworm Taenia solium (pork tapeworm). Human cysticercosisi can result in devastating effects on human health resulting in neurocysticercosis with blindness, convulsions, and epileptic seizures, and can be fatal. It is estimated to affect between 2.56 and 8.30 million people, based on the range of epilepsy prevalence data available (adapted from WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Taeniasis/cysticercosis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 29 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Taenia solium causes taeniasis which is acquired by humans through the ingestion of the parasite’s larval cysts (cysticerci) in undercooked and infected pork. Human tapeworm carriers excrete tapeworm eggs in their faeces and contaminate the environment when they defecate in open areas. Humans can also become infected with T. solium eggs due to poor hygiene (via the faecal-oral route) or ingesting contaminated food or water. When the parasites enter the central nervous system, they can cause neurological symptoms (neurocysticercosis), including epileptic seizures. Human cysticercosisi can result in devastating effects on human health. The larvae (cysticerci) may develop in the muscles, skin, eyes and central nervous system (WHO, 2020). Cysticercosis due to T. solium is usually characterised by mild and non-specific symptoms. Abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhoea or constipation may arise when the tapeworms become fully developed in the intestine, approximately 8 weeks after ingestion of meat containing cysticerci. These symptoms may continue until the tapeworm dies following treatment, otherwise it may live for several years. It is considered that untreated infections with T. solium tapeworms generally persist for two to three years. In the case of cysticercosis due to T. solium the incubation period prior to the appearance of clinical symptoms varies, and infected people may remain asymptomatic for many years. In some endemic regions (particularly in Asia), infected people may develop visible or palpable nodules (a small solid bump or node that can be detected by touch) beneath the skin (subcutaneous) (WHO, 2020). Taenia solium is the cause of 30% of epilepsy cases in many endemic areas where people and roaming pigs live in proximity. In high risk communities it can be associated with as many as 70% of epilepsy cases. More than 80% of the world’s 50 million people who are affected by epilepsy live in low and lower-middle income countries. In poor remote settings where the disease is present, epilepsy is difficult to diagnose and treat, and causes major stigma, especially in girls and women (where it is commonly associated with witchcraft) (WHO, 2020). In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group identified T. solium as a leading cause of deaths from food-borne diseases, and resulting in a total of 2.8 million disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs). The total number of people suffering from neurocysticercosis, including symptomatic and asymptomatic cases, is estimated at 2.56–8.30 million, based on the range of epilepsy prevalence data available. Although 70% of patients with epilepsy could lead a normal life if treated correctly; poverty, ignorance of the disease, inadequate infrastructure in health or lack of access to medication, cause 75% of people with this condition to be treated poorly, if treated at all (WHO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0eac29a6-18da-4cb8-b576-126ca80e7a29","prefLabel":{"en":"Dansgaard-Oeschger events (D-O events)"},"definition":{"en":"Millennial-scale events first characterized in Greenland ice cores as abrupt warming from a cold stadial state to a warmer interstadial state, followed by a return to a cold stadial state (Dansgaard et al., 1993), and traced in the ocean via deposits of ice-rafted sand grains (Bond and Lotti, 1995). Named after Willi Dansgaard and Hans Oeschger by Bond and Lotti (1995). An example of a D–O event during the most recent deglacial transition is the Bølling–Allerød interstadial. Warm D–O events in Greenland are associated with cooling events in Antarctica (Blunier and Brook, 2001) through ocean thermohaline circulation (Stocker and Johnsen, 2003)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/521c245c-98a9-4bf1-9e70-c2e9936dc716","prefLabel":{"en":"Data and observations"},"definition":{"en":"\"Improving collection, management, exchange, access to and use of observational data and other relevant information on current and historical climate and its impacts, and promoting improvement of observations, including the monitoring of climate variability.\n\nData and observations are important not only for monitoring the climate system, but also for detecting and attributing climate change, for assessing the impacts of climate variability and change, and for supporting research toward improved understanding, modelling and prediction of the climate system. Data can be collected on all aspects of the climate system including on the physical, chemical and biological properties and atmospheric, oceanic, hydrologic, cryospheric and terrestrial processes (Adapted from GCOS, 2003).\""},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f8c3d5a4-9190-4775-955a-01eea12d25fa","prefLabel":{"en":"Altimetry"},"definition":{"en":"A technique for measuring the height of the Earth’s surface with respect to the geocentre of the Earth within a defined terrestrial reference frame (geocentric sea level)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ed361172-1dc8-461c-86d2-2cafe0ceb923","prefLabel":{"en":"Anomaly"},"definition":{"en":"The deviation of a variable from its value averaged over a reference period."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/54437f7e-4481-4594-b9ce-4590d45457e5","prefLabel":{"en":"Canopy temperature"},"definition":{"en":"The temperature within the canopy of a vegetation structure."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a4bb0ee1-32f3-4f0c-a7d3-59b73d985335","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate data"},"definition":{"en":"The records of observed climate conditions taken at specific sites and times with particular instruments under a set of standard procedures.\n\nA climate dataset therefore contains climate information at the observation sites, as well as other non-climate-related factors such as the environment of the observation station, and information about the instruments and observation procedures (Metadata) (WMO, 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5e92214c-4e22-4aa3-aa18-5726ed1f05b7","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate metrics"},"definition":{"en":"Measures of aspects of the overall climate system response to radiative forcing, such as equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS), transient climate response (TCR), transient climate response to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCRE) and the airborne fraction of anthropogenic carbon dioxide."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9b2491ac-10fe-424b-883d-1a21703311e8","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate pattern"},"definition":{"en":"A set of spatially varying coefficients obtained by ‘projection’ (regression) of climate variables onto a climate index time series. When the climate index is a principal component, the climate pattern is an eigenvector of the covariance matrix, referred to as an empirical orthogonal function (EOF) in climate science."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4966fc70-8a26-4fbc-a5b4-ceeb351a85ec","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate velocity"},"definition":{"en":"The speed at which isolines of a specified climate variable travel across landscapes or seascapes due to changing climate. For example, climate velocity for temperature is the speed at which isotherms move due to changing climate (km yr-1) and is calculated as the temporal change in temperature (°C yr-1) divided by the current spatial gradient in temperature (°C km-1). It can be calculated using additional climate variables such as precipitation or can be based on the climatic niche of organisms."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/052ebf29-fe08-4f3f-bdc1-0ebd6f51a9b3","prefLabel":{"en":"Confidence"},"definition":{"en":"The robustness of a finding based on the type, amount, quality and consistency of evidence (e.g., mechanistic understanding, theory, data, models, expert judgement) and on the degree of agreement across multiple lines of evidence. In this report, confidence is expressed qualitatively (IPCC AR6, 2023; Mastrandrea et al., 2010)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/494fd1a9-4f55-494c-b1a9-1ba83e721bbd","prefLabel":{"en":"Data assimilation"},"definition":{"en":"Mathematical method used to combine different sources of information in order to produce the best possible estimate of the state of a system. This information usually consists of observations of the system and a numerical model of the system evolution. Data assimilation techniques are used to create initial conditions for weather forecast models and to construct reanalyses describing the trajectory of the climate system over the time period covered by the observations."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aa888a7b-353d-4fbb-aebd-3103f6bf0795","prefLabel":{"en":"Data scaling"},"definition":{"en":"The process of adjusting or transforming data to a common scale or range, often to improve comparability, model performance, or visualization (IPCC, 2007)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Data scaling in climate modelling and environmental modelling helps standardize or normalize environmental data for analysis, modeling, or comparison across different regions, time periods, or scenarios (IPCC, 2007)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/30620cd2-4922-4455-8a7c-1c2b0e70a8fa","prefLabel":{"en":"Digital elevation model"},"altLabel":{"en":["DEM","Digital terrain model"]},"definition":{"en":"A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a representation of the bare ground (bare earth) topographic surface of the Earth excluding trees, buildings, and any other surface objects (USGS, 2025)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2e763208-72ae-44f9-a552-4ec81d01981d","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth observation data"},"altLabel":{"en":["earth observation satellite data"]},"definition":{"en":"Earth observation data refers to the information collected, analysed and interpreted about Earth's surface, atmosphere, and oceans using various technologies such as satellites, aircraft, and ground-based sensors (The European Space Agency, n.d)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The acquired data are processed and analysed to extract different types of information that can be used to monitor and assess the status of – and changes in – both the natural and human-made environments. Earth observation data serves a very wide range of applications and industries, including: environmental protection, energy, managing urban areas, regional and local planning, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, health, transport, climate change, sustainable development, civil protection, tourism – and more.\n\nEurope’s Earth Observation programme is called Copernicus. Using a combination of satellites, in-situ sensors and air- and sea-borne sensors, Copernicus looks at our planet and its environment and provides data and information that benefits all European citizens (EUESPA, 2024)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/908640f1-ac82-4edc-994a-665fc3031019","prefLabel":{"en":"Evidence"},"definition":{"en":"Data and information used in the scientific process to establish findings (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["For example, in the IPCC reports, the degree of evidence reflects the amount, quality and consistency of scientific/technical information on which the Lead Authors are basing their findings (IPCC AR6, 2023). Additionally, empirical evidence and other research findings can increase our understanding and support future policy making (Adapted from Carabine, 2015 in Gill et al., 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3db2c900-e5f8-4ee9-851b-00efc327c68d","prefLabel":{"en":"Empirical evidence"},"altLabel":{"en":["Empirical datasets","empirical data"]},"definition":{"en":"Data that is observable and experimental (i.e. gathered from actual experience rather than theory or belief) (Adapted from\nMerriamWebster, n.d.; Njoku, 2017 in Gill et al., 2022)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4a5d61d4-33ee-40ac-b4ac-e0ae80c75865","prefLabel":{"en":"Fingerprint"},"definition":{"en":"The climate response pattern in space and/or time to a specific forcing is commonly referred to as a fingerprint. The spatial patterns of sea level response to melting of glaciers or ice sheets (or other changes in surface loading) are also referred to as fingerprints. Fingerprints are used to detect the presence of this response in observations and are typically estimated using forced climate model simulations."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/26bf4beb-2c35-4b32-942e-ca83749008ac","prefLabel":{"en":"Geographic Information System"},"altLabel":{"en":["GIS","geographic information systems","geographical information systems"]},"definition":{"en":"Geographic Information Systems (GIS) connects data to a map, integrating location data with all types of descriptive information. This provides a foundation for mapping and analysis that is used in science and almost every industry. GIS helps users understand patterns, relationships, and geographic context. The benefits include improved communication, efficiency, management, and decision-making (Esri, n.d)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9015f338-87a2-4a90-abb9-88bb15343d93","prefLabel":{"en":"Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)"},"definition":{"en":"A pair of satellites that measured the Earth’s gravity field anomalies from 2002 to 2017. These fields have been used, among other things, to study mass changes of the polar ice sheets and glaciers."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e59570f8-abd4-4b73-8134-717cbfa29479","prefLabel":{"en":"Heat index"},"definition":{"en":"A measure of how hot the air feels to the human body. The index is mainly based on surface air temperature and relative humidity and thus reflects the combined effect of high temperature and humidity on human physiology and provides a relative indication of potential health risks."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d6f6ea8c-a6a7-423c-b9cf-c9673365bf22","prefLabel":{"en":"Indicators"},"altLabel":{"en":["indicators"]},"definition":{"en":"Indicators are observable and measurable characteristics that can be used to simplify information to help understand the state of a concept or phenomenon, and/or to monitor it over time to show changes or progress towards achieving a specific change (Adapted from Ivčević et al. 2019; and Scotland’s\nInternational Development Alliance n.d. in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e6467ae9-fbac-49f2-bc73-dc3b12afcb1f","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate index"},"definition":{"en":"A time series constructed from climate variables that provides an aggregate summary of the state of the climate system. For example, the difference between sea level pressure in Iceland and the Azores provides a simple yet useful historical North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index. Because of their optimal properties, climate indices are often defined using principal components — linear combinations of climate variables at different locations that have maximum variance subject to certain normalization constraints (e.g., the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) and Southern Annular Mode (SAM) indices which are principal components of Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere gridded pressure anomalies, respectively). Definitions of observational indices for Modes of climate variability can be found in Annex VI of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/523d18b6-fa9f-47cc-b80f-3754a1fd3e9f","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate indicator"},"definition":{"en":"Measures of the climate system including large-scale variables and climate proxies."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/46b763a9-25bd-405a-afd3-cf9f01dc2306","prefLabel":{"en":"Vulnerability index"},"definition":{"en":"A metric characterising the vulnerability of a system. A climate vulnerability index is typically derived by combining, with or without weighting, several indicators assumed to represent vulnerability."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2cf76120-4506-4850-9c32-18fe78a63569","prefLabel":{"en":"LiDAR"},"definition":{"en":"LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), is a remote sensing method that can be used to generate detailed maps of topography and retrieve digital elevation data necessary for flood modelling and vulnerability and risks analysis. It uses a pulsed laser to measure and record three-dimensional information on the surface of the earth (topographic LIDAR), or the seafloor or riverbed (bathymetric LIDAR). The equipment is usually installed on an airplane, helicopter, or other airborne device, and includes a laser, scanner and GPS device (DHI, CTCN, UNEP DTU, 2017)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e6663ab-b782-4389-b2b9-c8c5dddd1bfa","prefLabel":{"en":"Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV)"},"definition":{"en":"Measurement‘Processes of data collection over time, providing basic datasets, including associated accuracy and precision, for the range of relevant variables. Possible data sources are field measurements, field observations, detection through remote sensing and interviews’ (UN-REDD, 2009).Reporting‘The process of formal reporting of assessment results to the UNFCCC, according to predetermined formats and according to established standards, especially the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines and GPG (Good Practice Guidance)’ (UN-REDD, 2009).Verification‘The process of formal verification of reports, for example, the established approach to verify national communications and national inventory reports to the UNFCCC’ (UN-REDD, 2009)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f139e41c-cbdf-4674-9f6f-7ad142c2202e","prefLabel":{"en":"Measurement"},"definition":{"en":"‘Processes of data collection over time, providing basic datasets, including associated accuracy and precision, for the range of relevant variables. Possible data sources are field measurements, field observations, detection through remote sensing and interviews’ (UN-REDD, 2009)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b0fc7fd8-a4e6-4b96-a86b-77a18c8daaae","prefLabel":{"en":"Reporting"},"definition":{"en":"The process of formal reporting of assessment results to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), according to predetermined formats and established standards, especially the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines and GPG (Good Practice Guidance)’ (UN REDD, 2009)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6f18d644-664f-4d17-8626-04215bdf3e69","prefLabel":{"en":"Verification"},"definition":{"en":"Confirmation, through the provision of objective evidence, that specified requirements have been fulfilled (Climateurope2, ISO 9000). \n\n‘The process of formal verification of reports, for example, the established approach to verify national communications and national inventory reports to the UNFCCC’ (UN REDD, 2009)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5f67931f-b777-471e-b7f0-a5e1ace0d0a4","prefLabel":{"en":"Metric"},"definition":{"en":"A consistent measurement of a characteristic of an object or activity that is otherwise difficult to quantify. Within the context of the evaluation of climate models, this is a quantitative measure of agreement between a simulated and an observed quantity which can be used to assess the performance of individual models."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b1352c3a-4060-427c-acf1-2be3755f9972","prefLabel":{"en":"Microwave sounding unit (MSU)"},"definition":{"en":"A microwave sounder on U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) polar orbiter satellites that estimates the temperature of thick layers of the atmosphere by measuring the thermal emission of oxygen molecules from a complex of emission lines near 60 GHz. A series of nine MSUs began making this kind of measurement in late 1978. Beginning in mid-1998, a follow-on series of instruments, the Advanced Microwave Sounding Units (AMSUs), began operation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c192b62e-dfed-4f32-af9a-3fc39aa84e3a","prefLabel":{"en":"Monitoring and evaluation (M&E)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning (MEL)"]},"definition":{"en":"Mechanisms put in place to respectively monitor and evaluate efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and/or adapt to the impacts of climate change with the aim of systematically identifying, characterising and assessing progress over time."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c92bd3f3-8898-4370-a975-e7aedb8da591","prefLabel":{"en":"Percentile"},"definition":{"en":"A partition value in a population distribution that a given percentage of the data values are below or equal to. The 50th percentile corresponds to the median of the population. Percentiles are often used to estimate the extremes of a distribution. For example, the 90th (10th) percentile may be used to refer to the threshold for the upper (lower) extremes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6c32a634-0ca0-42ed-8833-acad1b36734c","prefLabel":{"en":"pH"},"definition":{"en":"A dimensionless measure of the acidity of a dilute solution (e.g., seawater) based on the activity, or effective concentration, of hydrogen ions (H+) in the solution. pH is measured on a logarithmic scale where pH = –log10(H+). Thus, a pH decrease of 1 unit corresponds to a 10-fold increase in the acidity, or the activity of H+."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4a78c4c9-2ef1-454d-ac3e-52b4c39d8510","prefLabel":{"en":"Pollen analysis"},"definition":{"en":"A technique of both relative dating and environmental reconstruction, consisting of the identification and counting of pollen types preserved in peat, lake sediments and other deposits."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58122ebd-a180-4e7b-9f8e-82bf2df0d187","prefLabel":{"en":"Proxy"},"definition":{"en":"A proxy climate indicator is any biophysical property of materials formed during the past that is interpreted to represent some combination of climate-related variations back in time. Climate-related data derived in this way are referred to as proxy data, and time series of proxy data are proxy records. Examples of proxy types include pollen assemblages, tree ring widths, speleothem and coral geochemistry, and various data derived from marine sediments and glacier ice. Proxy data can be calibrated to provide quantitative climate information."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4fddb281-bc9b-4326-8e20-6a9e10dfacc1","prefLabel":{"en":"Reanalysis"},"definition":{"en":"Reanalyses are created by processing past meteorological or oceanographic data using fixed state-of-the-art weather forecasting or ocean circulation models with data assimilation techniques. They are used to provide estimates of variables such as historical atmospheric temperature and wind or oceanographic temperature and currents, and other quantities. Using fixed data assimilation avoids effects from the changing analysis system that occur in operational analyses. Although continuity is improved, global reanalyses still suffer from changing coverage and biases in the observing systems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/274d0587-86ac-4715-ada9-5e9b407d8bfb","prefLabel":{"en":"Reference period"},"definition":{"en":"A time period of interest, or a period over which some relevant statistics are calculated. A reference period can be used as a baseline period or as a comparison to a baseline period."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a8923ab0-229a-4c72-ae03-aff302f0206c","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline period"},"definition":{"en":"A time period against which differences are calculated (e.g., expressed as anomalies relative to a baseline)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7417a1da-7fec-4339-980b-ad96cf0ae12d","prefLabel":{"en":"Relative humidity"},"definition":{"en":"The ratio of actual water vapour pressure to that at saturation with respect to liquid water or ice at the same temperature."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1cc4dca4-98d5-4662-9599-214c2f0b388d","prefLabel":{"en":"Remote sensing"},"definition":{"en":"Remote sensing is defined as “acquisition of information about the land, sea and atmosphere by sensors located at some distance from the target of study”. It provides information about objects at or near the surface of the Earth and atmosphere based on radiation reflected or emitted from those objects. The information is usually captured at a distance from above in the form of image data. Such data allow us to determine the composition and nature of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere from local to global scales, and assess changes by analyzing images captured at different points in time. In this sense, remote sensing is useful in providing spatial information that is otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain (Read and Torrado, 2009)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cea8301a-b0eb-4be7-a6af-f7f84fd6ec6e","prefLabel":{"en":"Return value"},"definition":{"en":"The highest (or, alternatively, lowest) value of a given variable, on average occurring once in a given period of time (e.g., in 10 years)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4491509f-5980-4c06-9cd3-d54b6c33f3d4","prefLabel":{"en":"Satellite observations"},"definition":{"en":"Satellite observation refers to the use of satellites to collect data about the Earth and its various subsystems, such as the atmosphere, oceans, and land surfaces. These observations provide valuable information about the Earth's conditions and are made possible by the continuous operations and global coverage of satellites (Sellitto, 2017)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/59e4aa08-2db6-4fea-9776-0c29f994b8b1","prefLabel":{"en":"Tide gauge"},"definition":{"en":"A device at a coastal or deep-sea location that continuously measures the level of the sea with respect to the adjacent land. Time averaging of the sea level so recorded gives the observed secular changes of the relative sea level."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aa6949c5-e408-4f60-9459-5faf5a312f2c","prefLabel":{"en":"Tree rings"},"definition":{"en":"Concentric rings of secondary wood evident in a cross section of the stem of a woody plant. The difference between the dense, small-celled late wood of one season and the wide-celled early wood of the following spring enables the age of a tree to be estimated, and the ring widths or density can be related to climate parameters such as temperature and precipitation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7f3ac2ed-f5f4-4915-91ee-10db59c36995","prefLabel":{"en":"Variables"},"altLabel":{"en":["variable"]},"definition":{"en":"The name given to measurements such as temperature, precipitation, etc. (climate variables), sea level rise, salinity, etc. (marine variables) and cooling degree-days, days of air frost, etc. (derived variables) (Jack et al., 2021)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/848a329f-d4fd-4cb7-ba3b-4896fa078529","prefLabel":{"en":"Decarbonisation"},"definition":{"en":"Human actions to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from human activities. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bfe1bf4b-e863-49c8-98f0-c2e24861a215","prefLabel":{"en":"Decent Living Standard"},"definition":{"en":"A set of minimal material requirements essential for achieving basic human well-being including nutrition, shelter, basic living conditions, clothing, healthcare, education, and mobility (Rao and Baer 2012; Rao and Min 2018; O’Neill et al. 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b130c6b9-d85b-4dee-aae3-3ccfadf2eb80","prefLabel":{"en":"Decision makers"},"altLabel":{"en":["decision-maker","decision-makers"]},"definition":{"en":"Decision-makers influence a system (e.g., local authority, company) by means of policies that could change either the behaviour of the system or its physical elements. In a system that consists of various sub-systems, many decision-makers can play a role. Policies are used as a collective term for any legal, technological, or behavioural measures that a system could take (Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6a6909a5-ee9e-4789-8cd9-1f407e57c506","prefLabel":{"en":"Decoupling"},"definition":{"en":"Decoupling (in relation to climate change) is where economic growth is no longer strongly associated with another relevant indicator such as greenhouse gas emissions. Relative decoupling is where both these indicators grow but the other indicators grow more slowly than the economy. Absolute decoupling is where there is economic growth but there is a decline in the other indicator."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bf8ab18e-404b-41df-9301-a9314fde307f","prefLabel":{"en":"Demand"},"definition":{"en":"Disciplinary approaches use the term in different ways. In economics, demand by a consumer is willingness and ability to purchase in a marketplace. However, the motivation for purchase may vary and can include economic utility, welfare, Decent standard of living (DSL), or for the good/services."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2e4b4302-35b5-4475-94e1-ab862ef19282","prefLabel":{"en":"Demand and supply-side measures"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/331f1b2a-ff11-4838-93f8-fb567ac82471","prefLabel":{"en":"Demand-side measures"},"definition":{"en":"Policies and programmes for influencing the demand for goods and/or services. In the energy sector, demand-side mitigation measures aim at reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions emitted per unit of energy service used."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0b23e0ed-5637-42d9-a4f4-577f77b42fab","prefLabel":{"en":"Dengue (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Break Bone Fever"]},"definition":{"en":"Dengue is a mosquito-borne disease that is caused by a virus of the Flaviviridae family and transmitted by female mosquitoes mainly of the species Aedes aegypti and, to a lesser extent, A. albopictus (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Dengue and severe dengue. World Health Organization (WHO)
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral disease that is transmitted by female mosquitoes mainly of the species Aedes aegypti and, to a lesser extent, A. albopictus. These mosquitoes are also vectors of chikungunya, yellow fever and Zika viruses. Dengue is widespread throughout the tropics, with local variations in risk influenced by rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and unplanned rapid urbanisation (WHO, 2020). Dengue is a severe, flu-like illness that affects infants, young children and adults, but seldom causes death. Symptoms usually last for 2–7 days, after an incubation period of 4–10 days after the bite from an infected mosquito. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies dengue into two major categories: dengue (with / without warning signs) and severe dengue. The global incidence of dengue has grown dramatically in recent decades and about half of the world’s population is now at risk. There are an estimated 100–400 million infections each year (WHO, 2020). Dengue causes a wide spectrum of disease, ranging from subclinical disease (people may not know they are even infected) to severe flu-like symptoms in those infected. Although less common, some people develop severe dengue, which can be any number of complications associated with severe bleeding, organ impairment and/or plasma leakage. Severe dengue has a higher risk of death when not managed appropriately. Severe dengue was first recognised in the 1950s during dengue epidemics in the Philippines and Thailand. Today, severe dengue affects most Asian and Latin American countries and has become a leading cause of hospitalisation and death among children and adults in these regions (WHO, 2020). Dengue is caused by a virus of the Flaviviridae family and there are four distinct, but closely related, serotypes of the virus that causes dengue (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, DENV-4). Recovery from infection is believed to provide lifelong immunity against that serotype. However, cross-immunity to the other serotypes after recovery is only partial, and temporary. Subsequent infections (secondary infection) by other serotypes increase the risk of developing severe dengue (WHO, 2020). Dengue has distinct epidemiological patterns, associated with the four serotypes of the virus. These can co-circulate within a region, and indeed many countries are hyper-endemic for all four serotypes. Dengue has an alarming impact on both human health and the global and national economies. Dengue virus is frequently transported from one place to another by infected travellers; when susceptible vectors are present in these new areas, there is the potential for local transmission to be established (WHO, 2020). The incidence of dengue has grown dramatically around the world in recent decades. A vast majority of cases are asymptomatic or mild and self-managed, and hence the actual numbers of dengue cases are under-reported. Many cases are also misdiagnosed as other febrile illnesses (WHO, 2020). This alarming increase in case numbers is partly explained by a change in national practices to record and report dengue to the Ministries of Health, and to the WHO. But it also represents government recognition of the burden, and therefore the pertinence to report dengue disease burden. Therefore, although the full global burden of the disease is uncertain, this observed growth only brings a closer recognition to a more accurate estimate of the full extent of the burden (WHO, 2020). The WHO recommends three methods of dengue surveillance: epidemiological surveillance, vector surveillance and monitoring behavioural impact (WHO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/da886285-c496-4041-af60-2ea68f7219ec","prefLabel":{"en":"Design for transitions"},"definition":{"en":"Designing for transitions is a way of designing that takes a systems thinking and long term approach, focussing on progress, and creating interventions that move the whole system to a better state. It asks for an ongoing process and journey, noting that we cannot design single fixes for these systems (Coops et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f9ac95da-a8eb-40b4-b19c-cbbb16091359","prefLabel":{"en":"Design thinking"},"definition":{"en":"Design thinking brings together what is desirable from a human point of view with what is technologically feasible and economically viable. There is no single definition for design thinking. It’s an idea, a strategy, a method, and a way of seeing the world. Design thinking uses creative activities to foster collaboration and solve problems in human-centered ways. We adopt a “beginner’s mind,” with the intent to remain open and curious, to assume nothing, and to see ambiguity as an opportunity (IDEO, n.d)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/842d8c23-7c1a-4982-aefc-58a6b7a72270","prefLabel":{"en":"Developed/developing countries (Industrialised/developed/developing countries)"},"definition":{"en":"There is a diversity of approaches for categorising countries on the basis of their level of development, and for defining terms such as ‘industrialised’, ‘developed’ or ‘developing’. Several categorisations are used in this report. (1) In the United Nations (UN) system, there is no established convention for the designation of developed and developing countries or areas. (2) The UN Statistics Division specifies developed and developing regions based on common practice. In addition, specific countries are designated as Least Developed Countries, landlocked developing countries, Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and transition economies. Many countries appear in more than one of these categories. (3) The World Bank uses income as the main criterion for classifying countries as low, lower middle, upper middle and high income. (4) The UN Development Programme (UNDP) aggregates indicators for life expectancy, educational attainment and income into a single composite Human Development Index (HDI) to classify countries as low, medium, high or very high human development."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7957b731-0172-4901-9f23-bea5ac79275c","prefLabel":{"en":"Diarrhoeal Diseases (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Diarrhoeal diseases are infectious diseases, contaminants and other causes of diarrhoea. Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more loose or liquid stools per day, or more frequently than is normal for the individual (WHO, no date). This includes the three clinical types of diarrhoea: acute watery diarrhoea – lasts several hours or days, and includes cholera; acute bloody diarrhoea – also called dysentery; and persistent diarrhoea – lasts 14 days or longer (WHO, 2017).WHO, no date. Diarrhoea. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 20 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Diarrhoeal disease is the second leading cause of death in children under five years old. It is both preventable and treatable. Each year diarrhoea kills around 525,000 children under five. A significant proportion of diarrhoeal disease can be prevented through the provision of safe drinking-water and adequate sanitation and hygiene. Globally, there are nearly 1.7 billion cases of childhood diarrhoeal disease every year. Diarrhoeal diseases can be caused by infectious disease, malnutrition, contaminated water and food, and other causes: Infection: Diarrheal diseases are usually a symptom of gastrointestinal infection, which can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms, most of which are spread by faeces-contaminated water or from person to person as a result of poor hygiene. Infection is more common when there is a shortage of adequate sanitation and hygiene and safe water for drinking, cooking and cleaning. Rotavirus and Escherichia coli are the two most common etiological agents of moderate-to-severe diarrhoea in low-income countries. Other pathogens such as Cryptosporidium and Shigella species may also be important. Location-specific etiologic patterns also need to be considered (WHO, 2017). Malnutrition: Children who die from diarrhoea often suffer from underlying malnutrition, which makes them more vulnerable to diarrhoea. Each diarrhoeal episode, in turn, makes their malnutrition even worse. Diarrhoea is a leading cause of malnutrition in children under five years old (WHO, 2017). Source: Water contaminated with human faeces, for example, from sewage, septic tanks and latrines, is of particular concern. Animal faeces also contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhoea (WHO, 2017). Other causes: Diarrhoeal disease can also spread from person-to-person, aggravated by poor personal hygiene. Food is another major cause of diarrhoea when it is prepared or stored in unhygienic conditions. Unsafe domestic water storage and handling is an important risk factor. Consumption of fish and seafood from polluted water may also contribute to diarrhoeal disease (WHO, 2017). Diarrhoea can last several days and can leave the body without the water and salts that are necessary for survival. Severe diarrhoea leads to fluid loss, and may be life-threatening, particularly in young children and people who are malnourished or have impaired immunity. In the past, for most people, severe dehydration and fluid loss were the main causes of diarrhoea deaths. Now, other causes such as septic bacterial infections are likely to account for an increasing proportion of all diarrhoea-associated deaths. Children who are malnourished or have impaired immunity as well as people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are most at risk of life-threatening diarrhoea (WHO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1dd5e683-5079-4895-adbc-f40e1b3369f1","prefLabel":{"en":"Diet"},"definition":{"en":"The kinds of food that follow a particular pattern that a person or community eats (FAO and Alliance of Biodiversity International and CIAT, 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d54a8770-d301-441c-8e17-aa833247868b","prefLabel":{"en":"Digital twin"},"altLabel":{"en":["digital twin models","digital twining"]},"definition":{"en":"A digital twin is a virtual representation or digital replica of a physical object, system, or process. It integrates real-time data and simulations to mimic the behaviour, characteristics and dynamics of its physical counterpart (The European Space Agency, n.d)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/be512645-dd38-4fc6-a39f-9c76165db1e6","prefLabel":{"en":"Dimensions of integration"},"definition":{"en":"In IPCC AR6, concepts used to synthesize the knowledge of climate change across not just the physical sciences, but also across impacts, adaptation, and mitigation research. The concept of ‘dimensions of integration’ includes (i) emission and concentration scenarios underlying the climate change projections assessed in this report, (ii) levels of projected global mean temperature change and (iii) total amounts of cumulative carbon emissions for projections."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/11e9c4d4-e924-47c1-91f3-3230c07bb53a","prefLabel":{"en":"Diphtheria (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Diphtheria is a widespread severe infectious disease caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae and the toxin they produce. It is a potentially life-threatening, vaccine-preventable disease that primarily affects the throat and upper airways and has the potential for epidemics (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals: Diphtheria. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 15 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Transmission of Corynebacterium diphtheriae is through direct physical contact or from breathing in the aerosolised secretions from coughs or sneezes of infected individuals. The resulting respiratory illness has an acute onset and the main characteristics are sore throat, low fever and swollen glands in the neck. The diphtheria toxin causes a membrane of dead tissue to build up over the throat and tonsils, making breathing and swallowing difficult. The disease is fatal in 5–10% of cases, with a higher mortality rate in young children (WHO, 2018). Cutaneous infection can also occur, leading to absorption of the toxin and severe and occasionally fatal disease. Laboratory criteria for diagnosis is through the isolation of C. diphtheriae from a clinical specimen, or a four-fold or greater rise in serum antibody (but only if both serum samples were obtained before the administration of diphtheria toxoid or antitoxin) (WHO, 2014). Surveillance data can be used to monitor the incidence of disease and levels of vaccination coverage (target more than 90%) as measures of the impact of control programmes. The World Health Organization has published recommended surveillance standards for diphtheria (WHO, 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a546fe96-7390-4cd6-9d48-e13a563257e2","prefLabel":{"en":"Direct air capture (DAC)"},"definition":{"en":"Chemical process by which a pure carbon dioxide (CO2) stream is produced by capturing CO2 from the ambient air."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f372068e-5377-45c0-b9b1-01df33247d99","prefLabel":{"en":"Direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS)"},"definition":{"en":"Chemical process by which carbon dioxide (CO2) is captured directly from the ambient air, with subsequent storage. Also known as direct air capture and storage (DACS)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/172bfe47-1dc3-4265-aeab-00e17aff07da","prefLabel":{"en":"Direct emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Emissions that physically arise from activities within well-defined boundaries of, for instance, a region, an economic sector, a company, or a process."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aef81e7e-0911-4d2a-bca1-a457d62730eb","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster"},"definition":{"en":"A ‘serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts’ (IPCC AR6, 2023; UNGA, 2016)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/536c25fe-eb4c-4bea-a64d-9c4ddf3b895d","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster preparedness"},"altLabel":{"en":["disaster risk preparedness"]},"definition":{"en":"A condition where different levels and types of social, political and economic organization (and individuals) are able to anticipate and are ready to undertake actions that limit immediate hazard impacts, provide for early recovery, and promote sustainable post disaster recovery, including improved resilience (Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, n.d. Modified from UNDRR Sendai Framework Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Preparedness resources include the knowledge, capacities, human resources, assets, instruments and hardware developed or provided by governments, the private sector, response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals that facilitate response, including the existence of early warning systems at different spatial scales. \n\nPreparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and good linkages with early warning systems, and includes activities such as contingency planning, the stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation, and public information, and associated training and field exercises. These must be supported by formal institutional, legal, and budgetary capacities.\n\nPreparedness is a continuous cycle of planning, organizing, training, equipping, exercising, evaluating, and taking corrective action. These preparedness activities increase a community’s ability to respond when a disaster occurs. Training and exercising plans are the cornerstone of preparedness, which focuses on readiness to respond to all-hazard incidents and emergencies. \n\nA preparedness plan establishes arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective, and appropriate responses to specific potential hazardous events or emerging disaster situations that threaten society or the environment.\n\nIn relation to infrastructure, preparedness should be informed by the analysis of the physical condition of public infrastructure, its robustness and resilience, and existing levels of system redundancy, should any infrastructure system fail or be destroyed. This should be accompanied by the determination of alternatives for service provision immediately following impact and in the medium and long terms."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a14a2e29-5905-454f-8d70-c844f2ddda88","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilience"},"altLabel":{"en":["disaster resilient"]},"definition":{"en":"The ability of a system, community or society exposed to one or more hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from disasters in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of essential basic structures and functions (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Infrastructure resilience depends on the resilience of societal systems, governance systems, ecological systems, etc. See also “Disaster resilient infrastructure”. \n\nAn associated phrase is \"\"adaptive capacity\"\" which is the ability of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to respond to consequences. \n\nTransformative capacity is the ability of individuals and organisations to transform themselves and their society in a deliberate, conscious way. In the context of resilient infrastructure, transformation may manifest in the form of progressive governance arrangements, updating of codes and standards, and formulation of policies that enable resilience approaches in infrastructure development. See also “Organizational learning” and “Feedback loops”."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e29da928-b226-426c-8817-766e05c79f2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilience investment"},"definition":{"en":"Investment tools, resources, and processes that aim to avoid, reduce and transfer risk, mitigate the impact of disaster, and fund resilience building, recovery and reconstruction (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster resilience investment includes investments made in corrective, prospective, reactive, and compensatory DRM actions. This covers expenditures towards disaster and disaster risk prevention (avoidance), mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, reconstruction, and overall resilience building. \n\nDisaster resilience investment depends on disaster resilience finance, a notion equivalent to Disaster Risk Finance (DRF). \n\nInvestment comprises expenditures in hard infrastructure as well as in nature-based solutions; the promotion of behavioral change, including the development, enactment and control over laws, norms, and technical standards; and learning and capacity building.\n\nDisaster resilience investment is to date dominated by immediate pre-impact and post-impact response, reconstruction and recovery activities. Numerous mechanisms exist for this including emergency funds, insurance and reinsurance, contingent credits, loans and national budgeting reallocations. Pre-impact corrective and prospective disaster risk reduction and avoidance investments are a very small part of total investment. A permanent but not yet heeded call exists for very much increased disaster risk mitigation and prevention spending. \nAdaptation financing would be an equivalent seen from the angle of climate change investments. \n\nAs opposed to humanitarian financing sources and competition for these, an increase in disaster risk reduction and adaptation investment must come from alternative sector and territorial sustainable development sources. This requires a far greater involvement of development actors in the DRM theme and the recognition of the social construction of disaster risk, emanating from failed or skewed development processes."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e29da928-b226-426c-8817-766e05c79f2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilience investment"},"definition":{"en":"Investment tools, resources, and processes that aim to avoid, reduce and transfer risk, mitigate the impact of disaster, and fund resilience building, recovery and reconstruction (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster resilience investment includes investments made in corrective, prospective, reactive, and compensatory DRM actions. This covers expenditures towards disaster and disaster risk prevention (avoidance), mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, reconstruction, and overall resilience building. \n\nDisaster resilience investment depends on disaster resilience finance, a notion equivalent to Disaster Risk Finance (DRF). \n\nInvestment comprises expenditures in hard infrastructure as well as in nature-based solutions; the promotion of behavioral change, including the development, enactment and control over laws, norms, and technical standards; and learning and capacity building.\n\nDisaster resilience investment is to date dominated by immediate pre-impact and post-impact response, reconstruction and recovery activities. Numerous mechanisms exist for this including emergency funds, insurance and reinsurance, contingent credits, loans and national budgeting reallocations. Pre-impact corrective and prospective disaster risk reduction and avoidance investments are a very small part of total investment. A permanent but not yet heeded call exists for very much increased disaster risk mitigation and prevention spending. \nAdaptation financing would be an equivalent seen from the angle of climate change investments. \n\nAs opposed to humanitarian financing sources and competition for these, an increase in disaster risk reduction and adaptation investment must come from alternative sector and territorial sustainable development sources. This requires a far greater involvement of development actors in the DRM theme and the recognition of the social construction of disaster risk, emanating from failed or skewed development processes."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42841aff-3fb7-4d25-80c7-dfdf385f50d5","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilient infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure systems and networks, the components and assets thereof, and the services they provide, that are able to resist and absorb disaster impacts, maintain adequate levels of service continuity during crises, and recover in such a manner that future risks are reduced or prevented (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster resilience measures are relevant to planning, design, financing, operation and maintenance of infrastructure systems and networks."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/320a62d8-39d8-4d78-ab86-ef127aec8ee9","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster response"},"definition":{"en":"Actions taken directly before, during or immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected. These normally include a strategic perspective on cascading impacts of the event, new/emerging risk conditions as well as needs for rehabilitation, reconstruction, recovery and resilience building after the disaster event (modified from UNDRR, 2023 by the DRI Lexicon Project Expert Panel, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Effective and efficient response is dependent on availability of resilient infrastructure for search and rescue, evacuation, provisioning of basic services and distribution of food and water. The institutional elements of response include the provision of emergency services and public assistance by public and private and community sectors, as well as community and volunteer participation. “Emergency services” are a critical set of specialized agencies that have specific responsibilities in serving and protecting people and property in emergency and disaster situations. They include civil protection authorities, police and fire services, among many others.\n\nDisaster response is predominantly focused on immediate and short-term needs, but must also consider long-term sustainability goals. It can be organized, or emergent and spontaneous on the part of those affected. It should consider local priorities and existing capacities and it should be informed by cultural values and include the conservation of assets such as cultural heritage.\n\nThe effectiveness of response in relation to infrastructure is seen in immediate post-impact analysis of the security of damaged infrastructure, controls over use of such infrastructure and immediate activation of alternative service provision.\n\nEffective, efficient, and timely response relies on disaster preparedness measures, including the development of the capacities of individuals, communities, organizations, countries, and the international community. See also “Disaster preparedness”.\n\nThe division between the response stage and the subsequent recovery stage is not clear-cut. The adequacy and efficiency of response will influence more permanent recovery and reconstruction processes. Some response actions, such as the emergency provision of housing, electricity and water, may extend well into the recovery stage. Although only designed for temporary use, these provisions may become permanent for various reasons (modified from UNDRR, 2023 by the DRI Lexicon Project Expert Panel, 2023)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/943dd414-6b86-4010-b87c-485e9af4d76f","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster scenario"},"definition":{"en":"Scenarios are descriptions of plausible events that may occur in the future, leading to a particular set of outcomes. In relation to resilient infrastructure, disaster scenarios are based on assumptions about key driving forces, infrastructure interdependencies for a deeper understanding of causality of disruption and failure in the event of a disaster. They include the hazard, vulnerability, and exposure characteristics that predict or project a future disaster of determined magnitude, impact, and effect (Strong et al., 2020)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster scenarios can help articulate measures required to build the resilience of an infrastructure system based on characteristics of risk that may result from one or more of the drivers mentioned above."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7aea52fd-d2bf-45b9-91c2-2dbf2aab0bbb","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster management"},"definition":{"en":"Social processes for designing, implementing, and evaluating strategies, policies, and measures that promote and improve disaster preparedness, response, and recovery practices at different organisational and societal levels (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4d045cce-5b46-4a28-96f3-e3dc65e7da76","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster risk assessment"},"altLabel":{"en":["Disaster risk assessments"]},"definition":{"en":"Qualitative and quantitative approaches to determine the nature and extent of disaster risk by analysing existing or potential hazards and evaluating existing or potential conditions of exposure and vulnerability that together could lead to harm to people’s lives and livelihoods and to the property, services, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend (UNDRR, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster risk analysis is a particular form of generic risk analysis.\n\nDisaster risk assessments include the identification and review of the technical characteristics of hazards such as their intensity, frequency and probability (hazard assessment or analysis); the analysis of the levels of exposure of population, assets, infrastructure, cultural heritage, amongst other aspects, to specific hazards (exposure assessment or analysis); and the vulnerability of these items, including the physical, social, health, environmental and economic dimensions of such vulnerability (vulnerability assessment and analysis). These assessment processes are linked sequentially and iteratively to optimally arrive at an integral disaster risk assessment. \n\nBased on qualitative decision-making criteria in relation to acceptable or tolerable levels of risk for likely scenarios, risk assessments serve as a basis for the evaluation of capacities, including effectiveness of prevailing and alternative risk reduction and response capacities.\n\nDisaster risk assessment is applicable to prospective and corrective actions for delivery of critical services through infrastructure.\n\nScientifically based disaster risk assessment should be the basis for organized institutional and formal risk-informed decision-making in relation to disasters."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bbb0fb1c-bff1-4eb0-a5ca-db0938e7aed7","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster risk management (DRM)"},"definition":{"en":"Processes for designing, implementing and evaluating strategies, policies and measures to improve the understanding of current and future disaster risk, foster disaster risk reduction and transfer, and promote continuous improvement in disaster preparedness, prevention and protection, response and recovery practices, with the explicit purpose of increasing human security, well-being, quality of life and sustainable development (SD) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The application of disaster risk reduction policies and strategies can prevent new disaster risk, reduce existing disaster risk and manage residual risk, contributing to the strengthening of resilience and reduction of disaster losses (Adapted from: UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9fb772ff-117d-4ed5-b976-8ab9a0797743","prefLabel":{"en":"Discounting"},"definition":{"en":"A mathematical operation that aims to make monetary (or other) amounts received or expended at different times (years) comparable across time. If the discount rate is positive, future values are given less weight than those today. The choice of discount rate(s) is debated as it is a judgement based on hidden and/or explicit values."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4ce59d44-f71c-4622-b06c-f2d9a83f2893","prefLabel":{"en":"Discourse analysis"},"definition":{"en":"The analysis of both written and spoken language in relation to its social context and refers to the way that different types of language construct meaning (Newcastle University, n.d)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/51cc641f-7b30-4d57-a0de-dcd7d3f93bd1","prefLabel":{"en":"Disease"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/991a58b9-4da1-4fb7-8ea0-034a63a7e502","prefLabel":{"en":"Airborne Diseases"},"definition":{"en":"Airborne transmission of infectious agents refers to the transmission of disease caused by dissemination of very small droplets that remain infectious when suspended in air over long distance and time (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: implications for infection prevention precautions. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 22 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In its guidelines on Infection prevention and control of epidemic-and pandemic-prone acute respiratory infections in health care (WHO, 2014), the World Health Organization defines airborne transmission as: “The spread of an infectious agent caused by the dissemination of droplet nuclei that remain infectious when suspended in air over long distances and time. Airborne transmission can be further categorized into obligate or preferential airborne transmission: Obligate airborne transmission refers to pathogens that are transmitted only by deposition of droplet nuclei under natural conditions (e.g., pulmonary tuberculosis). Preferential airborne transmission refers to pathogens that can initiate infection by multiple routes but are predominantly transmitted by droplet nuclei (e.g., measles and chickenpox).” Acute respiratory diseases are acute upper or lower respiratory tract diseases, frequently infectious in aetiology, that can result in a spectrum of illnesses, ranging from asymptomatic or mild infection to severe or fatal disease. The severity depends on the causative pathogen, and on environmental and host factors (WHO, 2014). Three main types of organism can cause infectious related airborne diseases: viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Disease-causing pathogens are organisms that spread from one infected person to another through coughing, talking, and sneezing (WHO, 2014). Pathogens that are transmitted through the airborne route include pulmonary tuberculosis, measles, chickenpox and influenza virus (WHO, 2014)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ca9ce0a0-bd61-4d57-9fb2-dc64977ed164","prefLabel":{"en":"Avian Influenza (Human and Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Avian Flu","Bird Flu,"]},"definition":{"en":"Avian influenza is an infectious disease of birds caused by type A influenza viruses of the Orthomyxoviridae family. Naturally occurring among wild bird populations, avian influenza viruses can infect domestic poultry and other bird species. Some avian influenza viruses can also infect mammals and those affecting humans are called zoonotic. A pandemic can occur when a novel zoonotic avian influenza virus spreads in human populations worldwide (FAO, 2009; WHO, 2018; OIE, 2020).FAO, 2009. Preparing for Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 3 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Avian influenza is transmitted by direct contact with infected birds or through contaminated environments (farms, markets, cages, vehicles, etc.) (OIE, no date a). Live poultry and poultry products trade and movements play an important role in national and cross-border spread. Certain avian influenza strains have also been shown to spread through migratory wild bird movements, sometimes over long distances (FAO, 2016, 2017). Biosecurity measures on farms and in live poultry markets are important to prevent disease introduction or spread (FAO, 2015). Type A influenza viruses include many different subtypes, classified according to the nature of the two components that make up the virus – haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) – proteins found on the surface of influenza viruses. There are 18 haemagglutinin and 11 neuraminidase subtypes of influenza A virus, giving rise to hundreds of variations on the ‘HxNy’ combination. Avian influenza strains that do not cause significant disease signs in poultry are considered low pathogenic while those leading to severe disease (including severe respiratory syndrome, and nervous signs) and high mortality rates are called highly pathogenic (WHO, 2018). Since the emergence of the H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) virus subtype in 1997 in Asia, several other subtypes have appeared due to the constant evolution and diversification of avian influenza viruses and progressively spread across continents (OIE, 2016; CDC, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4a3c7d13-7580-42f5-8e75-c37afe5cf87f","prefLabel":{"en":"COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["COVID-19","Coronavirus,","SARS-CoV-2,"]},"definition":{"en":"COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the SARS Coronavirus 2 (SARS CoC2), a virus first identified in human populations in late 2019. Transmission occurs through droplets containing infectious virus, either by direct face to face contact (splash) generated by speaking, singing, coughing or sneezing; or by aerosolisation for up to 1 metre. Virus-containing aerosols that travel further than 1 metre are defined as airborne. The virus is thought to infect humans through the mucus membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth. Living virus has been isolated from faeces and urine but neither is thought to represent a major means of transmission. Fomites are thought to represent a low risk of transmission, but the risk has not yet been quantified. The risk of transmission is greatest in closed, poorly ventilated spaces where humans are in close proximity for ten to fifteen minutes and do not physically distance or wear a protective face covering (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Coronavirus disease (Covid-19). World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 4 May 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The majority of infections are asymptomatic or cause mild disease with fever or chills, cough, dyspnoea, fatigue, myalgia, headache, anosmia, ageusia, sore throat, nasal congestion, nausea or vomiting and diarrhoea. Infections cause more severe symptoms with increasing age, with the greatest risk of severe illness and death in those aged 85 years or older. Also at greater risk of serious illness and death are those with pre-existing medical conditions including cancer, chronic kidney disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cardiovascular disease (WHO, 2020a,b). The clinical course for severe illness can be long and often requires supplemental oxygen. A number of persons who have been infected develop lasting symptoms including chronic fatigue and damage to vital organs such as the lungs and heart. This phenomenon is generally referred to as long COVID and at present is not completely understood (WHO, 2020a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fa6e3c99-6270-4a2d-b51b-442221649aaa","prefLabel":{"en":"Measles (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Rubeola"]},"definition":{"en":"Measles is a highly contagious, serious disease caused by a virus from the paramyxovirus family. Transmission occurs through direct contact, droplet spread, and airborne spread. The virus initially infects the respiratory tract, then spreads throughout the body (WHO 2019).WHO, 2019. Measles. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 11 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Despite a long-running, global, childhood routine immunisation programme, measles has been resurgent in recent years, and countries which had previously achieved good control have experienced new outbreaks. Even though a safe and cost-effective vaccine is available, in 2018, there were more than 140,000 measles deaths globally, mostly among children under the age of five (WHO, 2019a). Measles is a highly contagious viral disease which affects susceptible individuals of all ages and remains one of the leading causes of death among young children globally, despite the availability of safe and effective measles-containing vaccines. It is transmitted via droplets from the nose, mouth, or throat of infected persons. Initial symptoms, which usually appear 10 to 12 days after infection, include high fever, usually accompanied by one or more of the following: runny nose, conjunctivitis, cough and tiny white spots on the inside of the mouth. Several days later, a rash develops, starting on the face and upper neck and gradually spreads downwards. A patient is infectious four days before the start of the rash to four days after the appearance of the rash. Most people recover within two to three weeks (WHO, 2019b). Detection of specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies in a serum sample collected within the first few days of rash onset can provide presumptive evidence of a current or recent measles virus infection. Serological tests can result in false-negative results when serum specimens are collected too early with respect to rash onset (CDC, 2019). Serious complications are more common in children under the age of 5 years, or in adults over the age of 30 years. The most serious complications include blindness, encephalitis (an infection that causes brain swelling), severe diarrhoea and related dehydration, ear infections, or severe respiratory infections such as pneumonia (CDC, 2019; WHO, 2019a). Even with implementation of routine immunisation, measles continues to circulate globally due to suboptimal vaccination coverage and population immunity gaps. Any community with less than 95% population immunity is at risk for an outbreak. If an outbreak response is not timely and comprehensive, the virus will find its way into more pockets of vulnerable individuals and potentially spread within and beyond the affected countries (WHO, 2019b). The impact on public health will persist until the ongoing outbreaks are controlled, routine immunisation coverage is continuously high (≥95%) and immunity gaps in the population are closed. As long as measles continues to circulate anywhere in the world, no country can be assured to avoid importation. However, countries can protect their populations through high vaccine coverage achieved primarily through routine immunisation programmes, and where necessary through supplemental immunisation activities designed to ensure that susceptible individuals are vaccinated (WHO, 2019b). Although the measles virus is related to several other viruses that infect animals, humans are the only reservoir for the measles virus. It is therefore theoretically possible that measles, could be eradicated from the world (ECDC, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a556e99f-f9f4-4da0-93ea-c689f6d38720","prefLabel":{"en":"Pandemic Influenza (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Pan flu"]},"definition":{"en":"An influenza pandemic is the worldwide spread of a new influenza virus to which there is little or no pre-existing immunity in the human population (WHO, 2021).WHO, 2021. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed June 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The constantly evolving nature of the influenza virus makes influenza among the top few infectious hazards with significant impact. A pandemic occurs when an influenza virus emerges to which there is little or no immunity in the global human population and which can transmit efficiently among people. The pandemic virus can be a virus strain jumping directly from animals or reassorted from animal viruses with or without human seasonal viruses. Three influenza pandemics occurred at intervals of several decades during the 20th century, the most severe of which was the so-called ‘Spanish Flu’ (caused by an A(H1N1) virus), estimated to have caused 20–50 million deaths in 1918–2019. Milder pandemics occurred followed in 1957–1958 (‘Asian Flu’) caused by an A(H2N2) virus) and in 1968 (the ‘Hong Kong Flu’ caused by an A(H3N2) virus), which were estimated to have caused 1–4 million deaths each. The current status of knowledge and technology means that predicting the next influenza pandemic – when, where, which virus strain, and how severe it will be – is impossible. Consequently, pandemic vaccines cannot be developed before the pandemic virus emerges. The World Health Organization (WHO) public health research agenda for influenza as an innovative research mechanism is key to inform and advance pandemic influenza preparedness (WHO, 2017a). Meanwhile global influenza surveillance, through the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS), assists with timely sharing of virus data and associated information, and national capacity building via seasonal influenza programs that are critical to mitigate the impact of the inevitable next pandemic (WHO, 2017b)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0f6ba020-1887-4d8a-9bed-1480c701e7de","prefLabel":{"en":"Seasonal Influenza (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Flu"]},"definition":{"en":"Seasonal influenza is an acute respiratory infection caused by influenza viruses which circulate in all parts of the world (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Influenza (seasonal). World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Seasonal influenza is most often caused by type A or B influenza viruses. The constant evolving nature of influenza viruses makes influenza among the top few infectious hazards with significant impact. Epidemics occur mainly during winter, from October to March in the northern hemisphere and April to September in the southern hemisphere. In tropical and subtropical countries, seasonal influenza can happen all year round (WHO, 2020). Seasonal influenza outbreaks are caused by small changes on the surface of viruses that have already circulated, and to which people have some immunity (WHO, 2018). Symptoms include sudden onset of fever, cough (usually dry), headache, muscle and joint pain, sore throat and a runny nose. The cough can be severe and can last two or more weeks. Most people recover from fever and other symptoms within a week without requiring medical attention (WHO, 2018). Seasonal influenza can cause severe illness or death in high-risk groups, such as pregnant women, children younger than five years, people older than 65 years, and people with chronic medical conditions. People with increased risk of exposure to influenza, such as children in day care centres and schools and workers in health care facilities, can transmit infections to others if they become ill (WHO, 2018). Patients who are not from a high-risk group should be managed with ‘symptomatic treatment’ and are advised, if symptomatic, to stay home to minimise the risk of infecting others in the community. Patients known to be at high risk for developing severe or complicated illness, should be treated with antiviral drugs in addition to symptomatic treatment as soon as possible. Patients with severe or progressive clinical illness associated with suspected or confirmed influenza infection (i.e., clinical syndromes of pneumonia, sepsis or exacerbation of chronic underlying disease) should be treated with antiviral drugs as soon as possible (WHO, 2017, 2018). Most cases of human influenza are clinically diagnosed. Collection of appropriate respiratory samples and the application of a laboratory diagnostic test is required to establish a definitive diagnosis. Laboratory confirmation of influenza virus from throat, nasal and nasopharyngeal secretions or tracheal aspirate or washings is commonly performed using direct antigen detection, virus isolation, or by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) (WHO, 2018). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends annual vaccination with vaccines containing updated formulation for high-risk groups ideally before the season begins. Getting vaccinated at any time during the season can still help prevent flu infections (WHO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c60460fb-f25c-4ae9-878e-a19932397b17","prefLabel":{"en":"Tuberculosis (Human and Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB)","Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB)","Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB)","Rifampicin-resistant (RR-TB)"]},"definition":{"en":"Tuberculosis (TB) is a curable bacterial infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that most commonly affects the lungs. It causes national epidemics of varied severity worldwide. Forms of TB that are resistant to treatment – multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) – are public health crises and threaten health security worldwide (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Tuberculosis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 3 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) that most often affect the lungs. Tuberculosis is curable and preventable. It is spread from person to person through the air. When people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit, they propel the TB germs into the air. A person needs to inhale only a few of these germs to become infected (WHO, 2020). About one-quarter of the world’s population has latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), which means people have been infected by TB bacteria but are not (yet) ill with the disease and cannot transmit the disease. However, they have a 5–15% lifetime risk of falling ill. Persons with compromised immune systems, such as people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), malnutrition or diabetes, are at higher risk. People living with HIV are 19 times more likely to develop active TB than people without HIV. HIV and TB form a lethal combination, each speeding the other’s progress (WHO, 2020). The symptoms of active TB are coughing (sometimes with sputum or blood), chest pains, weakness, weight loss, fever, and night sweats. When a person develops active TB, the symptoms may be mild for many months. This can lead to delays in seeking care, and results in transmission of the bacteria to others (WHO, 2020). Diagnostic tests for tuberculosis disease include sputum smear microscopy (a long-used method that allows visualisation of the bacteria, many countries rely on it), rapid molecular tests (endorsed by the World Health Organization [WHO]) and culture-based methods; the latter take up to 12 weeks to provide results but remain the reference standard. TB that is resistant to first-line and second-line anti-TB drugs can be detected using rapid tests, culture methods and sequencing technologies. However, TB is particularly difficult to diagnose in children (WHO, 2020). Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a form of drug-resistant TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to the two most powerful first-line anti-TB drugs – rifampicin and isoniazid. MDR-TB is treatable and curable by using second-line treatment options, which are limited and require extensive chemotherapy with medicines that are expensive and toxic. Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is a more serious form of MDR-TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to the most effective second-line anti-TB drugs, often leaving patients without any further treatment options (WHO, 2020). In 2019, MDR-TB remains a public health crisis and a health security threat. A global total of 206,030 people with multidrug- or rifampicin-resistant TB (MDR/RR-TB) were detected and notified in 2019, a 10% increase from 186,883 in 2018. About half of the global burden of MDR-TB is in three countries – India, China and the Russian Federation (WHO, 2020). The WHO has published information about case-definitions and classification (WHO, 2014) as well as guidelines for surveillance of drug resistance in tuberculosis (WHO, 2015)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/00ff542f-48f3-441d-b525-9f993c620357","prefLabel":{"en":"Animal Diseases (Not Zoonoses)"},"definition":{"en":"Animal disease is an impairment of the normal state of an animal that interrupts or modifies its vital function. Infectious diseases of livestock and wildlife are a major threat to global animal health and welfare and their effective control is crucial for agronomic health, for safeguarding and securing national and international food supplies and for alleviating rural poverty in developing countries. This hazard information profile focusses on animal diseases not including zoonoses (Britannica, 2021; adapted from Tomley and Shirley, 2009).Tomley, F.M. and M.W. Shirley, 2009. Livestock infectious diseases and zoonoses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 364:2637-2642.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Infectious animal diseases remain a major threat to all animals including wildlife and livestock. Some devastating livestock diseases are endemic in many parts of the world and threats from old and new pathogens continue to emerge, with changes to global climate, agricultural practices and demography presenting conditions that are especially favourable for the spread of arthropod-borne diseases into new geographical areas (Tomley and Shirley, 2009). Transboundary animal diseases are defined as animal diseases of significant economic, trade and/or food security importance for a considerable number of countries; which can easily spread to other countries and reach epidemic proportions; and where control/management, including exclusion, requires cooperation between several countries (FAO, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5e3be9a4-2b60-4bf8-ab2f-c2207ff82065","prefLabel":{"en":"Communicable disease"},"definition":{"en":"Illness due to a specific infectious agent or its toxic products that arises through transmission of that agent or its products from an infected person, animal or reservoir to a susceptible host, either directly or indirectly through an intermediate plant or animal host, vector or the inanimate environment. Communicable disease pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites and prions."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4eb6e6d7-bd8f-4bde-8f81-6438f1f08dab","prefLabel":{"en":"Cholera (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal infection caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Cholera remains a global threat to public health (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Cholera. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 4 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["During the 19th century, cholera spread across the world from its original reservoir in the Ganges delta in India. Six subsequent pandemics killed millions of people across all continents. The current (seventh) pandemic started in South Asia in 1961 and reached Africa in 1971 and the Americas in 1991. Cholera is now endemic in many countries (WHO, 2019). There are many serogroups of V. cholerae, but only two – O1 and O139 – cause outbreaks. V. cholerae O1 has caused all recent outbreaks. V. cholerae O139 – first identified in Bangladesh in 1992 – has caused outbreaks in the past, but recently has only been identified in sporadic cases. It has never been identified outside Asia. There is no difference in the illness caused by the two serogroups. These are extremely virulent, and it usually takes between twelve hours and five days for symptoms to develop following infection (WHO, 2019). The disease can affect both adults and children. Most of those infected with Vibrio cholera do not develop any symptoms, although the bacteria are present in their faeces for one to ten days after infection, and are shed back into the environment, potentially affecting other people. Among people who develop symptoms, the majority have mild or moderate symptoms, while a minority develop acute watery diarrhoea which can lead to death if untreated. Treatment should be rapid, with intravenous fluids and antibiotics (WHO, 2019). Cholera diagnosis is confirmed by identifying Vibrio cholera in the stools of affected individuals. Detection can be facilitated by the use of rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) where one or more positive samples triggers a cholera alert. The samples should be sent to a laboratory for confirmation by culture or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (WHO, 2019). Cholera can be endemic or epidemic. A cholera-endemic area is an area where confirmed cholera cases were detected during the last three years with evidence of local transmission (meaning the cases are not imported from elsewhere). A cholera outbreak/epidemic can occur in both endemic countries and in countries where cholera does not regularly occur (WHO, 2019). In cholera endemic countries an outbreak can be seasonal or sporadic and represents a greater than expected number of cases. In a country where cholera does not regularly occur, an outbreak is defined by the occurrence of at least one confirmed case of cholera with evidence of local transmission in an area where there is not usually cholera (WHO, 2019). The consequences of a humanitarian crisis – such as disruption of water and sanitation systems, or the displacement of populations to inadequate and overcrowded camps – can increase the risk of cholera transmission, should the bacteria be present or introduced. Uninfected dead bodies have never been reported as the source of epidemics (WHO, 2019). The number of cholera cases reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) has continued to be high over the last few years. In 2017, 1227,391 cases were notified from 34 countries, including 5654 deaths. The discrepancy between these figures and the estimated burden of the disease is because many cases are not recorded due to limitations in surveillance systems and fear of impact on trade and tourism (WHO, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4a3c7d13-7580-42f5-8e75-c37afe5cf87f","prefLabel":{"en":"COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["COVID-19","Coronavirus,","SARS-CoV-2,"]},"definition":{"en":"COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the SARS Coronavirus 2 (SARS CoC2), a virus first identified in human populations in late 2019. Transmission occurs through droplets containing infectious virus, either by direct face to face contact (splash) generated by speaking, singing, coughing or sneezing; or by aerosolisation for up to 1 metre. Virus-containing aerosols that travel further than 1 metre are defined as airborne. The virus is thought to infect humans through the mucus membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth. Living virus has been isolated from faeces and urine but neither is thought to represent a major means of transmission. Fomites are thought to represent a low risk of transmission, but the risk has not yet been quantified. The risk of transmission is greatest in closed, poorly ventilated spaces where humans are in close proximity for ten to fifteen minutes and do not physically distance or wear a protective face covering (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Coronavirus disease (Covid-19). World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 4 May 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The majority of infections are asymptomatic or cause mild disease with fever or chills, cough, dyspnoea, fatigue, myalgia, headache, anosmia, ageusia, sore throat, nasal congestion, nausea or vomiting and diarrhoea. Infections cause more severe symptoms with increasing age, with the greatest risk of severe illness and death in those aged 85 years or older. Also at greater risk of serious illness and death are those with pre-existing medical conditions including cancer, chronic kidney disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cardiovascular disease (WHO, 2020a,b). The clinical course for severe illness can be long and often requires supplemental oxygen. A number of persons who have been infected develop lasting symptoms including chronic fatigue and damage to vital organs such as the lungs and heart. This phenomenon is generally referred to as long COVID and at present is not completely understood (WHO, 2020a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3de9d725-d80c-4594-a7ed-ec1dc5df2ad8","prefLabel":{"en":"Hepatitis B (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Acute hepatitis B,","Chronic hepatitis B,","Hepatitis B related cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma"]},"definition":{"en":"Hepatitis B is a vaccine-preventable disease, that is endemic and epidemic worldwide, and caused by the Hepatitis B virus (HBV). HBV can cause both acute and chronic liver disease. Chronic infection puts people at high risk of death from cirrhosis and liver cancer (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Hepatitis B. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Hepatitis B is the most serious type of viral hepatitis. In highly endemic areas, the Hepatitis B virus (HBV), which is highly contagious, is most commonly spread from mother to child at birth (perinatal transmission), or through horizontal transmission (exposure to infected blood), especially from an infected child to an uninfected child during the first five years of life (WHO, 2016a). Hepatitis B is also spread by needlestick injury, tattooing, piercing and exposure to infected blood and body fluids, such as saliva and, menstrual, vaginal, and seminal fluids. Sexual transmission of hepatitis B may occur, particularly in unvaccinated men who have sex with men and heterosexual persons with multiple sex partners or contact with sex workers (WHO, 2020). The incubation period of the HBV is 75 days on average but can vary from 30 to 180 days. Most people do not experience any symptoms when newly infected. However, some have acute illness with symptoms that last several weeks, including yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), dark urine, extreme fatigue, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain. A small subset of persons with acute hepatitis can develop acute liver failure, which can lead to death (WHO, 2020). In some people, the HBV can also cause a chronic liver infection that can later develop into cirrhosis (a scarring of the liver) or hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer). Infection in adulthood leads to chronic hepatitis in less than 5% of cases, whereas infection in infancy and early childhood leads to chronic hepatitis in about 95% of cases (WHO, 2020). Laboratory confirmation of hepatitis B diagnosis is essential. A number of blood tests are available to diagnose and monitor people with hepatitis B. They can be used to distinguish acute and chronic infections (WHO, 2020). The World Health Organisation (WHO) has published surveillance standards for hepatitis B (WHO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1e4111c4-18ec-4801-bd79-23984c82bbd7","prefLabel":{"en":"HIV and AIDS (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a viral sexually transmitted and blood-borne infection which targets the immune system, weakening people’s defences against opportunistic infections and some types of cancer. The most advanced stage of HIV infection is acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which can take from 2 to 15 years to develop if not treated, depending on the individual. AIDS is defined by the development of certain cancers, infections or other severe clinical manifestations (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. HIV/AIDS. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 13 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a global pandemic (WHO, 2019). The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) targets the CD4 cells of the immune system leading to immunodeficiency which results in increased susceptibility to a wide range of infections, cancers and other diseases that people with healthy immune systems can fight off. The HIV can be transmitted via the exchange of body fluids from infected people, such as blood, breastmilk, semen and vaginal secretions. It can also be transmitted from a mother to her child during pregnancy and delivery. People at higher risk include gay men and other men who have sex with men; people who inject drugs; people in prisons and other closed settings; sex workers and their clients; and transgender people. Other particularly vulnerable population are adolescents and young women in southern and eastern Africa and indigenous peoples (WHO, 2019). The symptoms of HIV infection and AIDS vary depending on the stage of infection. Although people living with HIV tend to be most infectious in the first few months following infection, many are unaware of their status until the later stages (WHO, 2019). In the first few weeks after infection people may experience no symptoms or an influenza-like illness. As the infection progressively weakens the immune system, they may go on to develop severe illnesses such as tuberculosis, cryptococcal meningitis, severe bacterial infections, and cancers such as lymphomas and Kaposi’s sarcoma. Notably, among people living with HIV, tuberculosis is the most common illness and is the leading cause of death, responsible for nearly a third of HIV-associated deaths (WHO, 2019). The HIV can be diagnosed through rapid diagnostic tests that provide results in a very short period of time. This greatly facilitates early diagnosis and linkage with treatment and care. People can also determine their own status using HIV self-tests. While testing for adolescents and adults has been made simple and efficient, this is not the case for infants born to HIV-positive mothers. For children less than 18 months of age, serological testing is not sufficient to identify HIV infection – virological testing must be provided as early as birth or at six weeks of age (WHO, 2019). There is no cure for HIV infection. However, effective antiretroviral therapy can control the virus over the course of a lifetime and help prevent onward transmission to other people."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fa6e3c99-6270-4a2d-b51b-442221649aaa","prefLabel":{"en":"Measles (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Rubeola"]},"definition":{"en":"Measles is a highly contagious, serious disease caused by a virus from the paramyxovirus family. Transmission occurs through direct contact, droplet spread, and airborne spread. The virus initially infects the respiratory tract, then spreads throughout the body (WHO 2019).WHO, 2019. Measles. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 11 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Despite a long-running, global, childhood routine immunisation programme, measles has been resurgent in recent years, and countries which had previously achieved good control have experienced new outbreaks. Even though a safe and cost-effective vaccine is available, in 2018, there were more than 140,000 measles deaths globally, mostly among children under the age of five (WHO, 2019a). Measles is a highly contagious viral disease which affects susceptible individuals of all ages and remains one of the leading causes of death among young children globally, despite the availability of safe and effective measles-containing vaccines. It is transmitted via droplets from the nose, mouth, or throat of infected persons. Initial symptoms, which usually appear 10 to 12 days after infection, include high fever, usually accompanied by one or more of the following: runny nose, conjunctivitis, cough and tiny white spots on the inside of the mouth. Several days later, a rash develops, starting on the face and upper neck and gradually spreads downwards. A patient is infectious four days before the start of the rash to four days after the appearance of the rash. Most people recover within two to three weeks (WHO, 2019b). Detection of specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies in a serum sample collected within the first few days of rash onset can provide presumptive evidence of a current or recent measles virus infection. Serological tests can result in false-negative results when serum specimens are collected too early with respect to rash onset (CDC, 2019). Serious complications are more common in children under the age of 5 years, or in adults over the age of 30 years. The most serious complications include blindness, encephalitis (an infection that causes brain swelling), severe diarrhoea and related dehydration, ear infections, or severe respiratory infections such as pneumonia (CDC, 2019; WHO, 2019a). Even with implementation of routine immunisation, measles continues to circulate globally due to suboptimal vaccination coverage and population immunity gaps. Any community with less than 95% population immunity is at risk for an outbreak. If an outbreak response is not timely and comprehensive, the virus will find its way into more pockets of vulnerable individuals and potentially spread within and beyond the affected countries (WHO, 2019b). The impact on public health will persist until the ongoing outbreaks are controlled, routine immunisation coverage is continuously high (≥95%) and immunity gaps in the population are closed. As long as measles continues to circulate anywhere in the world, no country can be assured to avoid importation. However, countries can protect their populations through high vaccine coverage achieved primarily through routine immunisation programmes, and where necessary through supplemental immunisation activities designed to ensure that susceptible individuals are vaccinated (WHO, 2019b). Although the measles virus is related to several other viruses that infect animals, humans are the only reservoir for the measles virus. It is therefore theoretically possible that measles, could be eradicated from the world (ECDC, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9fbae778-bf02-4dd1-b077-70a83a52a08c","prefLabel":{"en":"Polio (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Poliomyelitis"]},"definition":{"en":"Polio (human) is a highly infectious viral disease which mainly affects young children (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Poliomyelitis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 16 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Poliomyelitis (polio) is a highly infectious viral disease that largely affects children under 5 years of age. The virus is transmitted by person-to-person spread mainly through the faecal-oral route or, less frequently, by a common vehicle (e.g., contaminated water or food) and multiplies in the intestine, from where it can invade the nervous system and cause paralysis (WHO, 2019). Polio virus infection is mostly asymptomatic. If there are symptoms these can include fever, malaise, sore throat, anorexia, myalgia, headache, and in less than 1% of infected children illness can progress to paralytic disease. Typically, the paralysis is acute onset and flaccid in nature and asymmetrically involving limbs. One in 200 infections leads to irreversible paralysis. Among those paralysed, 5% to 10% may die due to respiratory paralysis. If the child recovers, paralysis is often permanent (WHO, 2019). Polio is diagnosed clinically through symptoms and laboratory methods including virus isolation in stool, serological testing and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (Kasper and Fauci, 2013; WHO, 2019). Cases due to wild poliovirus have decreased by over 99% since 1988, from an estimated 350,000 cases then, to 33 reported cases in 2018 (WHO, 2019). There is no cure for polio, but vaccination is highly effective in preventing the disease (WHO, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c60460fb-f25c-4ae9-878e-a19932397b17","prefLabel":{"en":"Tuberculosis (Human and Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB)","Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB)","Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB)","Rifampicin-resistant (RR-TB)"]},"definition":{"en":"Tuberculosis (TB) is a curable bacterial infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that most commonly affects the lungs. It causes national epidemics of varied severity worldwide. Forms of TB that are resistant to treatment – multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) – are public health crises and threaten health security worldwide (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Tuberculosis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 3 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) that most often affect the lungs. Tuberculosis is curable and preventable. It is spread from person to person through the air. When people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit, they propel the TB germs into the air. A person needs to inhale only a few of these germs to become infected (WHO, 2020). About one-quarter of the world’s population has latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), which means people have been infected by TB bacteria but are not (yet) ill with the disease and cannot transmit the disease. However, they have a 5–15% lifetime risk of falling ill. Persons with compromised immune systems, such as people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), malnutrition or diabetes, are at higher risk. People living with HIV are 19 times more likely to develop active TB than people without HIV. HIV and TB form a lethal combination, each speeding the other’s progress (WHO, 2020). The symptoms of active TB are coughing (sometimes with sputum or blood), chest pains, weakness, weight loss, fever, and night sweats. When a person develops active TB, the symptoms may be mild for many months. This can lead to delays in seeking care, and results in transmission of the bacteria to others (WHO, 2020). Diagnostic tests for tuberculosis disease include sputum smear microscopy (a long-used method that allows visualisation of the bacteria, many countries rely on it), rapid molecular tests (endorsed by the World Health Organization [WHO]) and culture-based methods; the latter take up to 12 weeks to provide results but remain the reference standard. TB that is resistant to first-line and second-line anti-TB drugs can be detected using rapid tests, culture methods and sequencing technologies. However, TB is particularly difficult to diagnose in children (WHO, 2020). Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a form of drug-resistant TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to the two most powerful first-line anti-TB drugs – rifampicin and isoniazid. MDR-TB is treatable and curable by using second-line treatment options, which are limited and require extensive chemotherapy with medicines that are expensive and toxic. Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) is a more serious form of MDR-TB caused by bacteria that do not respond to the most effective second-line anti-TB drugs, often leaving patients without any further treatment options (WHO, 2020). In 2019, MDR-TB remains a public health crisis and a health security threat. A global total of 206,030 people with multidrug- or rifampicin-resistant TB (MDR/RR-TB) were detected and notified in 2019, a 10% increase from 186,883 in 2018. About half of the global burden of MDR-TB is in three countries – India, China and the Russian Federation (WHO, 2020). The WHO has published information about case-definitions and classification (WHO, 2014) as well as guidelines for surveillance of drug resistance in tuberculosis (WHO, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5e14ad5f-ff90-4da0-969e-669f0ee518ee","prefLabel":{"en":"Yellow Fever (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Yellow fever is an acute viral haemorrhagic disease transmitted by infected mosquitoes (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Yellow fever. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Yellow fever virus is an arbovirus of the flavivirus genus and is transmitted by mosquitoes, belonging to the Aedes and Haemogogus genus. The different mosquito species live in different habitats – some breed around houses (domestic), others in the jungle (wild), and some in both habitats (semi-domestic). There are three types of transmission cycles: sylvatic (or jungle) yellow fever; intermediate yellow fever; and urban yellow fever. The virus is endemic in tropical areas of Africa and Central and South America (WHO, 2019). The ‘yellow’ in the name refers to the jaundice that affects some patients (WHO, 2019). Once contracted, the yellow fever virus incubates in the body for 3 to 6 days. Many people do not experience symptoms, but when these do occur, the most common are fever, muscle pain with prominent backache, headache, loss of appetite, and nausea or vomiting. Symptoms disappear after 3 to 4 days (WHO, 2019). A small proportion of patients may enter a more toxic phase within 24 hours of recovering from initial symptoms. High fever returns and usually the liver and the kidneys are affected. People in this phase are likely to develop jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), dark urine and abdominal pain with vomiting. Bleeding can occur from the mouth, nose, eyes or stomach. Half of the patients in this toxic phase die within 7 to 10 days (WHO, 2019). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing in blood and urine can sometimes detect the virus in early stages of the disease. In later stages, testing to identify antibodies is needed (WHO, 2019). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3e9c52cc-5378-4e26-b699-67fdfbf943d3","prefLabel":{"en":"Zika Virus (human)"},"definition":{"en":"Zika virus disease is a disease transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes which can lead to complications (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Zika virus. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Zika virus is primarily transmitted to humans and animals through the bite of an infected mosquito from the Aedes genus, mainly A. aegypti, in tropical and subtropical regions. Aedes mosquitoes usually bite during the day, peaking during early morning and late afternoon/evening (WHO, 2018). Zika virus is also transmitted from mother to foetus during pregnancy, through sexual contact, transfusion of blood and blood products, and organ transplantation (WHO, 2018). Symptoms are generally mild and include fever, rash, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise or headache. Symptoms typically last for 2 to 7 days. Most people with Zika virus infection do not develop symptoms (WHO, 2018). Zika virus infection during pregnancy can cause infants to be born with microcephaly and other congenital malformations and neurodevelopmental disorders, known as congenital Zika syndrome. Infection with Zika virus is also associated with other complications of pregnancy including pre-term birth and miscarriage (WHO, 2018). An increased risk of neurological complications is associated with Zika virus infection in adults and children, including Guillain- Barré syndrome, neuropathy and myelitis (WHO, 2018). Infection with Zika virus may be suspected based on symptoms of persons living in or visiting areas with Zika virus transmission and/or Aedes mosquito vectors (WHO, 2018). A diagnosis of Zika virus infection can only be confirmed by laboratory tests of blood or other body fluids, such as urine or semen (WHO, 2018). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2016a)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d1dbd99-e80b-4b89-9dbe-5483e0b38a15","prefLabel":{"en":"Food-borne diseases"},"definition":{"en":"Foodborne diseases are transmitted by consumption of contaminated biological food and drink (WHO, 2012). These diseases are caused by eating food contaminated with bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances (WHO, no date).WHO, no date. Foodborne diseases. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 7 April 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Over 200 diseases are caused by ingestion of food that is contaminated with bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances such as heavy metals. This growing public health concern causes considerable socioeconomic impacts though strains on health-care systems, lost productivity, and harm to tourism and trade. These diseases contribute significantly to the global burden of disease and mortality (WHO, no date). The contamination of food, may occur at any stage of the food production, delivery and consumption chain. Foodborne diseases can result from several forms of environmental contamination, including pollution in water, soil or air, as well as unsafe food storage and processing (WHO, no date). Foodborne diseases encompass a wide range of illnesses from diarrhoea to cancers. Most present as gastrointestinal issues, although they can also produce neurological, gynaecological and immunological symptoms. Diseases causing diarrhoea are a major problem in all countries of the world, although the burden is carried disproportionately by low- and middle-income countries and by children under 5 years of age (WHO, no date). Every year, nearly one in 10 people around the world fall ill after eating contaminated food, leading to over 420,000 deaths. Children are disproportionately affected, with 125,000 deaths every year in people under 5 years of age. The majority of these cases are caused by diarrhoeal diseases. Other serious consequences of foodborne diseases include kidney and liver failure, brain and neural disorders, reactive arthritis and cancer (WHO, no date)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4d2dd14b-3c8b-4d97-a9d6-dfba2864598e","prefLabel":{"en":"Escherichia Coli (STEC) (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)","Shiga-toxin producing E. coli (STEC),","Verocytotoxigenic E. coli (VTEC),"]},"definition":{"en":"Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a bacterium commonly found in the gut. Some strains can cause serious food poisoning, leading to diarrhoea and sometimes to life-threatening complications including haemolytic uraemic syndrome (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. E. coli. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 6 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Most strains of E. coli are harmless and are commonly found in the lower intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. Some strains however, such as Shiga-toxin producing E. coli (STEC), are harmful and can lead to serious foodborne infections. E. coli O157:H7 is the most important STEC serotype in relation to public health, although other serotypes have often been involved in sporadic cases and outbreaks (WHO, 2019). STEC transmission is faecal-oral, with cattle the main reservoir although sheep and goats also carry Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). It is transmitted to humans primarily through the consumption of contaminated water and foods, including raw or undercooked ground meat products (such as hamburgers or dried cured salami), raw milk (such as cheese or yoghurt made from raw milk), and vegetables contaminated with faeces. Contact with animals (e.g., farms and petting zoos) is also a transmission route (WHO, 2019). Humans are a secondary but significant reservoir for EHEC. People can be asymptomatic carriers of the pathogen (and therefore show no clinical signs of disease) but are capable of infecting others (WHO, 2019). Symptoms are usually self-limiting, with recovery within ten days of onset. They include abdominal cramps, diarrhoea which may be bloody (haemorrhagic colitis), fever and vomiting. In a small proportion of patients (particularly young children and the elderly), the infection may lead to haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) which can be life-threatening and is characterised by acute renal failure, haemolytic anaemia and thrombocytopenia (low blood platelets) (WHO, 2019). Antibiotics are not recommended for treatment of EHEC infections because antibiotics can exacerbate the complications of EHEC, leading to HUS. In addition, many strains are multiply resistant to antibiotics such as ampicillin, streptomycin, trimethoprim, sulphonamide and tetracycline (Tadesse et al., 2012). Laboratory diagnosis is via isolation of the organism on culture and / or detection of the toxin gene in faeces (ECDC, 2018). The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) has published case classification for outbreak management and national epidemiological surveillance (ECDC, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fd6fb4a9-3896-41e6-af6e-478fb75097d0","prefLabel":{"en":"Listeriosis (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Listeriosis is a foodborne infection caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes which can be invasive (the more serious form of the disease) or non-invasive (the milder form of the disease). Listeriosis outbreaks occur in all countries and can be a significant public health concern (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Listeriosis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["There are two main types of listeriosis: a non-invasive form and an invasive form. Non-invasive listeriosis (febrile listerial gastroenteritis) is a mild form of the disease affecting mainly otherwise healthy people. Symptoms include diarrhoea, fever, headache and myalgia (muscle pain). Outbreaks have generally involved the ingestion of foods containing high doses of Listeria monocytogenes (WHO, 2018). Invasive listeriosis is a more severe form of the disease and affects certain high-risk groups of the population, including pregnant women, immunocompromised individuals (such as those with HIV/AIDS, leukaemia, cancer, kidney transplant and steroid therapy), elderly people and infants. This form of disease is characterised by fever, myalgia, septicaemia and meningitis, and other severe symptoms, including abortion in pregnant women. It is associated with a high mortality rate (20%–30%). The incubation period of listeriosis is usually one to two weeks but can vary from a few days up to 90 days (WHO, 2018). Unlike many other common foodborne diseases causing bacteria, L. monocytogenes can survive and multiply at the low temperatures usually found in refrigerators. In past outbreaks, foods involved have included ready-to-eat meat products, such as frankfurters, meat spread (paté), smoked salmon and fermented raw meat sausages, as well as dairy products (including soft cheeses, unpasteurised milk and ice cream) and prepared salads (including coleslaw and bean sprouts) as well as fresh vegetables and fruit. Eating contaminated food with high numbers of L. monocytogenes is the main route of infection (WHO, 2018). Infection can also be transmitted between humans, notably from pregnant women to unborn babies. Pregnant women are about 20 times more likely to contract listeriosis than other healthy adults. It can result in miscarriage or stillbirth. Newborn babies may also have low birth weight, septicaemia and meningitis. People with HIV/AIDS are at least 300 times more likely to get ill than those with a normally functioning immune system (WHO, 2018). Owing to the long incubation period, it is challenging to identify the food which was the actual source of the infection (WHO, 2018)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/996f6fe9-e603-4218-8bce-4e832279d144","prefLabel":{"en":"Prion Diseases"},"definition":{"en":"Prion diseases are a family of rare progressive neurodegenerative disorders that affect both humans and animals (CDC, no date).CDC, no date. Prion Diseases. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Accessed 14 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Prion diseases are a group of rare transmissible disorders characterised by long incubation periods, characteristic spongiform changes associated with neuronal loss, and a failure to induce inflammatory response. They are often difficult to diagnose, untreatable, and ultimately fatal (CDC, no date). Prion diseases involve accumulation of an abnormal prion protein in the central nervous system with no specific immunological response. Human prion diseases include sporadic, familial, and variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). Sporadic CJD is the most common, representing an estimated 85% of cases and thought to affect approximately 1 person per million worldwide each year. Sporadic CJD is caused by the spontaneous transformation of normal prions into abnormal ones. Familial CJD is inherited as a result of genetic mutations and counts for 10–15% of cases worldwide. The remaining cases are iatrogenic and variant CJD (WHO, no date). Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy found in cattle. Variant Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease (vCJD), found in humans, is believed to be a zoonotic disease caused by the BSE agent. The route of transmission of vCJD is through exposure to food contaminated by the bovine spongiform encephalopathy agent (WHO, no date). Scrapie, another animal prion disease is endemic in some sheep and goat flocks of Europe, Asia and North America, with the exception of a small number of countries. Recently other animal prion diseases have been found in elk and deer (chronic wasting disease), mink (transmissible mink encephalopathy) and felines (feline spongiform encephalopathy) (WHO, no date). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards for vCJD and other human-transmissible prion diseases (WHO, 2003)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c7bc7063-df64-431c-806a-3967121be5ca","prefLabel":{"en":"Zoonotic Diseases"},"altLabel":{"en":["Zoonoses"]},"definition":{"en":"Zoonotic diseases are a group of communicable diseases that are transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans through direct contact or through food, water, and the environment (WHO, no date).WHO, no date. Zoonoses: Managing public health risks at the human-animal-environment interface. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 14 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A zoonotic disease is any disease that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans. Animals therefore play an essential role in maintaining zoonotic infections in nature. They may be bacterial, viral, or parasitic, or may involve unconventional agents. As well as being a problem for public health many of the major zoonotic diseases prevent the efficient production of food of animal origin and create obstacles to international trade in animal products (WHO, no date). Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted to humans in a number of different ways which vary depending on the specific disease. In addition to direct contact with animals they may be transmitted by: transmission from person to person; inhalation of spores or contaminated dust; consumption of unpasteurised dairy products or contaminated food; consumption of contaminated water; skin exposure to spores or contaminated water; and animal or insect bites/scratches (CDC, no date). Zoonotic diseases comprise a large percentage of all newly identified infectious diseases as well as many existing ones. There are over 200 known types of zoonotic disease (WHO, 2020). Some zoonotic diseases begin as a zoonosis but later mutate into human-only strains, for example human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Others can cause recurring disease outbreaks, such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis (WHO, FAO and OIE, 2019)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ca9ce0a0-bd61-4d57-9fb2-dc64977ed164","prefLabel":{"en":"Avian Influenza (Human and Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Avian Flu","Bird Flu,"]},"definition":{"en":"Avian influenza is an infectious disease of birds caused by type A influenza viruses of the Orthomyxoviridae family. Naturally occurring among wild bird populations, avian influenza viruses can infect domestic poultry and other bird species. Some avian influenza viruses can also infect mammals and those affecting humans are called zoonotic. A pandemic can occur when a novel zoonotic avian influenza virus spreads in human populations worldwide (FAO, 2009; WHO, 2018; OIE, 2020).FAO, 2009. Preparing for Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 3 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Avian influenza is transmitted by direct contact with infected birds or through contaminated environments (farms, markets, cages, vehicles, etc.) (OIE, no date a). Live poultry and poultry products trade and movements play an important role in national and cross-border spread. Certain avian influenza strains have also been shown to spread through migratory wild bird movements, sometimes over long distances (FAO, 2016, 2017). Biosecurity measures on farms and in live poultry markets are important to prevent disease introduction or spread (FAO, 2015). Type A influenza viruses include many different subtypes, classified according to the nature of the two components that make up the virus – haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) – proteins found on the surface of influenza viruses. There are 18 haemagglutinin and 11 neuraminidase subtypes of influenza A virus, giving rise to hundreds of variations on the ‘HxNy’ combination. Avian influenza strains that do not cause significant disease signs in poultry are considered low pathogenic while those leading to severe disease (including severe respiratory syndrome, and nervous signs) and high mortality rates are called highly pathogenic (WHO, 2018). Since the emergence of the H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) virus subtype in 1997 in Asia, several other subtypes have appeared due to the constant evolution and diversification of avian influenza viruses and progressively spread across continents (OIE, 2016; CDC, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7ae1935a-a3b4-4a5c-aed2-1f1f686c8c9e","prefLabel":{"en":"Ebola (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ebola haemorrhagic fever"]},"definition":{"en":"Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a rare but severe zoonotic viral infectious disease caused by the Ebola virus. It can lead to haemorrhagic fever and is often fatal in humans. EVD can trigger epidemics with high casefatality rates (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Ebola virus disease. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Ebola virus causes an acute, serious illness which is often fatal if untreated. Ebola virus disease (EVD) first appeared in 1976 in two simultaneous outbreaks, one in what is now Nzara, South Sudan, and the other in Yambuku, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The latter occurred in a village near the Ebola River, from which the disease takes its name (WHO, 2020a). The 2014–2016 outbreak in West Africa was the largest Ebola outbreak since the virus was first discovered in 1976. The outbreak started in Guinea and then moved across land borders to Sierra Leone and Liberia. The current 2018–2019 outbreak in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo is highly complex, with insecurity adversely affecting public health response activities (WHO, 2020a). The virus family Filoviridae includes three genera: Cuevavirus, Marburgvirus, and Ebolavirus. Within the genus Ebolavirus, six species have been identified: Zaire, Bundibugyo, Sudan, Taï Forest, Reston and Bombali. The virus causing the current outbreak in Democratic Republic of the Congo and the 2014–2016 West African outbreak belongs to the Zaire ebolavirus species (WHO, 2020a). Ebola is introduced into the human population through close contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected animals such as fruit bats, chimpanzees, gorillas, monkeys, forest antelope or porcupines found ill or dead or in the rainforest (WHO, 2020a). Ebola then spreads through human-to-human transmission via direct contact (through broken skin or mucous membranes) with blood or body fluids of a person who is sick with or has died from Ebola, or objects that have been contaminated with body fluids (such as blood, faeces, vomit) from a person sick with Ebola or the body of a person who died from Ebola (WHO, 2020a). Health-care workers have frequently been infected while treating patients with suspected or confirmed EVD. This occurs through close contact with patients when infection control precautions are not strictly practiced. Burial ceremonies that involve direct contact with the body of the deceased can also contribute in the transmission of Ebola. People remain infectious as long as their blood contains the virus. Pregnant women who get acute Ebola and recover from the disease may still carry the virus in breastmilk, or in pregnancy related fluids and tissues. This poses a risk of transmission to the baby they carry, and to others. Women who become pregnant after surviving Ebola disease are not at risk of carrying the virus (WHO, 2020a). The incubation period is from 2 to 21 days. A person infected with Ebola virus cannot spread the disease until they develop symptoms. The symptoms of EVD can be sudden and include flu-like symptoms followed by diarrhoea, vomiting, rash, internal and external bleeding (such as oozing from the gums or blood in stools), and symptoms of impaired kidney and liver function. The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks (WHO, 2020a). It can be difficult to clinically distinguish EVD from other infectious diseases such as malaria, typhoid fever and meningitis. Laboratory confirmation that symptoms are caused by Ebola virus infection are made using diagnostic serological and virological tests. Careful consideration should be given to the selection of diagnostic tests, which take into account technical specifications, disease incidence and prevalence, and social and medical implications of test results. It is strongly recommended that diagnostic tests that have undergone an independent and international evaluation be considered for use (WHO, 2020a). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published case definitions for EVD (WHO, 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2f578057-a70f-4871-90c7-d1ed6f048c76","prefLabel":{"en":"Rabies (Animal and Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Rabies is a vaccine preventable zoonotic disease causing acute encephalitis which can progress towards coma and death typically within 7 to 10 days of the first signs if no intensive care is instituted. It is a disease of public health concern (adapted from WHO, 2018, 2020).WHO, 2018. WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies. Third report. WHO Technical Report Series, No. 1012. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 12 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Rabies is a zoonotic disease (a disease that is transmitted from animals to humans), caused by the rabies virus, of the Lyssavirus genus, within the family Rhabdoviridae. Domestic dogs are the most common reservoir of the virus, with more than 99% of human deaths caused by dog-mediated rabies. Human infection occurs from bites of infected animals (usually dogs) and occasionally via penetrating scratches or licking of broken skin and mucosa. Domestic dogs, wild carnivore species and bats (Carnivora and Chiroptera) present a higher risk for rabies transmission than other mammals, as they are the reservoirs of the virus. Although monkeys, like any other mammal, are susceptible to rabies, the risk of rabies transmission from monkeys is extremely low. Infected animals may not appear rabid (NHS, no date). Rabies is an acute, invariably fatal viral encephalitis. Initial signs include apprehension, headache, fever, malaise and sensory changes around the bite area. Excitability, hallucinations and abnormal fear of drafts of air (aerophobia) are common, followed in some cases by fear of water (hydrophobia) due to spasms of the swallowing muscles. Days after onset, the disease progresses to delirium, convulsions and death. Paralytic rabies is less common and is characterised by paralysis and loss of sensation, weakness and pain. Once clinical symptoms appear, rabies is virtually 100% fatal (WHO, 2018). Rabies is present on all continents, except Antarctica, with over 95% of human deaths occurring in the Asia and Africa regions (WHO, 2021). Although effective human vaccines and immunoglobulins exist for rabies, they are not readily available or accessible to those in need (WHO, 2020). Metrics and numeric limits Not applicable."]}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ddff6baa-6235-4091-b96c-7e518d7662a9","prefLabel":{"en":"Disease (Animal)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/20d4dd29-7280-4531-8898-34990c834ebc","prefLabel":{"en":"Anthrax"},"definition":{"en":"Anthrax is a disease caused by the spore-forming bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivorous animals, although all mammals, including humans can contract it. In humans, anthrax manifests itself in three distinct patterns (cutaneous, gastrointestinal, inhalational) (adapted from WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008; CDC, 2020).CDC, 2020. Anthrax. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Accessed 11 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Until the introduction and widespread use of effective veterinary vaccines, Anthrax was a major cause of fatal disease in cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and pigs throughout the world. Anthrax continues to be reported from many countries in domesticated and wild herbivores, especially where livestock vaccination programmes are inadequate or have been disrupted (WHO, no date). Humans generally acquire the disease directly or indirectly from infected animals, or occupational exposure to infected or contaminated animal products. Control in livestock is therefore the key to reduced incidence in humans. The disease is generally regarded as being non-contagious (WHO, no date). The infected host sheds the vegetative bacilli onto the ground and these sporulate on exposure to the air. The spores, which can persist in soil for decades, may displace up to the topsoil, following grass growth or flooding, creating favourable conditions for anthrax. Grazing animals may take up the spore and get infected, when germination and multiplication can again take place upon the site of infection. Flies appear to play an important role in large outbreaks in endemic areas. Humans acquire anthrax from handling carcasses, hides, bones, etc. from animals that died of the disease (WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008). More than 95% of human anthrax cases take the cutaneous form and result from handling infected carcasses or hides, hair, meat or bones from such carcasses. All three forms (cutaneous, gastrointestinal, inhalational) are potentially fatal if untreated, but the cutaneous form is more often self-limiting. Data from pre-antibiotic and vaccine days indicate that 10%–40% of untreated cutaneous cases may be expected to result in death with some geographical and temporal variations (WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008). Bacillus anthracis has always been high on the list of potential agents with respect to biological warfare and bioterrorism. It has been used in that context on at least two occasions, prepared for use on several other occasions and been the named agent in many threats and hoaxes (WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4159d40e-37af-4308-a4a3-4d10838ce628","prefLabel":{"en":"Brucellosis (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Contagious abortion","Malta fever","Mediterranean fever","Undulant fever"]},"definition":{"en":"Brucellosis is a bacterial disease caused by various Brucella species, which mainly infect cattle, swine, goats, sheep and dogs (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Brucellosis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 9 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Brucellosis is one of the most widespread zoonoses transmitted by animals and in endemic areas human brucellosis has serious public health consequences. Expansion of animal industries and urbanisation, and the lack of hygienic measures in animal husbandry and in food handling, partly account for brucellosis remaining a public health hazard (WHO, 2020). Brucellosis is found globally and is a reportable disease in most countries. It affects people of all ages and both sexes. In the general population, most cases are caused through direct contact with infected animals, by eating or drinking contaminated animal products or by inhaling airborne agents. Most cases are caused by ingesting unpasteurized milk or cheese from infected goats or sheep (WHO, 2020). The disease is also considered an occupational hazard for people who work in the livestock sector. People who work with animals and are in contact with blood, placenta, foetuses and uterine secretions have an increased risk of contracting the disease. This method of transmission primarily affects farmers, butchers, hunters, veterinarians and laboratory personnel (WHO, 2020). Brucellosis is mainly caused by Brucella abortus, biovars 1-6, 9; B. melitensis, biovars 1-6; B. suis, biovars 1-5; and B. canis (WHO, 2001). Worldwide, B. melitensis is the most prevalent species causing human brucellosis, owing in part to difficulties in immunising free-ranging goats and sheep (WHO, 2020). Brucellosis typically causes flu-like symptoms, including fever, weakness, malaise and weight loss. However, the disease may present in many atypical forms and which, in the absence of specific treatment, may persist for weeks or months. In many patients the symptoms are mild and, therefore, the diagnosis may not be considered. The incubation period of the disease can be highly variable, ranging from 1 week to 2 months, but usually 2 to 4 weeks (FAO, OiE and WHO, 2006; WHO, 2020). Human-tohuman transmission is very rare (WHO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/782eee30-e0fe-46d7-a1bd-68d6452a5984","prefLabel":{"en":"Lumpy Skin Disease (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Dermatose nodulaire contagieuse (fr)","Dermatosis nodular contagiosa (es)","Заразный узелковый дерматит крс (ru)","الجلد مرض العقدي (ar)","牛结节性皮肤病 (cn)"]},"definition":{"en":"Lumpy skin disease is a vector-borne pox disease of domestic cattle and Asian water buffalo and is characterised by the appearance of skin nodules on all body surface including the udder (FAO, 2017).FAO, 2017. Lumpy Skin Disease: A field manual for veterinarians. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Animal Production and Health Manual No. 20. Accessed 3 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a poxviral disease with significant morbidity in cattle that has dramatic effects on rural livelihoods (FAO, 2017). Although the mortality rate is generally low, economic losses result from loss of condition, decreased milk production, abortions, infertility and damaged hides. Lumpy skin disease is caused by the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), a member of the genus Capripoxvirus (CaPV) within the family Poxviridae. The LSDV shares the genus with sheep pox virus (SPPV) and goat pox virus (GTPV), which are closely related, but phylogenetically distinct. Although the three viruses are considered to be distinct viral species, they cannot be distinguished by routine serological tests (FAO, 2017). The causative virus seems to be spread mainly by blood-feeding insects, such as certain species of flies and mosquitoes or ticks, and outbreaks can be widespread and difficult to control (OIE, 2020). LSD spreads mainly through mechanical transmission by arthropod vectors. In addition to vectors, transmission may occur through consumption of contaminated feed or water, direct contact, natural mating or artificial insemination (FAO, 2017). Although traditionally limited to sub-Saharan Africa, LSD has slowly been invading new territories since 2015 including the Middle East and Turkey, and most of the Balkan countries, the Caucasus and the Russian Federation, causing substantial economic losses and serious threat to the food security. Further, in 2019, LSD was also reported in Bangladesh, China and India and in 2020 it has reached Chinese Taipei (OIE, 2020). LSD can rapidly spread across national borders and reach epidemic proportions, thus requiring regional cooperation in prevention, control and eradication (FAO, 2017). Large-scale vaccination is the most effective way to prevent and control the disease spread. Effective vaccines against LSD are commercially available and the sooner they are used the less severe the economic impact of an outbreak is likely to be (FAO, 2017). There is no evidence that LSDV can infect humans (FAO, 2017)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7e14137e-19a7-4f93-a7c5-f0bf982e98a8","prefLabel":{"en":"Disease (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["diseases","illness"]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/20d4dd29-7280-4531-8898-34990c834ebc","prefLabel":{"en":"Anthrax"},"definition":{"en":"Anthrax is a disease caused by the spore-forming bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivorous animals, although all mammals, including humans can contract it. In humans, anthrax manifests itself in three distinct patterns (cutaneous, gastrointestinal, inhalational) (adapted from WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008; CDC, 2020).CDC, 2020. Anthrax. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Accessed 11 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Until the introduction and widespread use of effective veterinary vaccines, Anthrax was a major cause of fatal disease in cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and pigs throughout the world. Anthrax continues to be reported from many countries in domesticated and wild herbivores, especially where livestock vaccination programmes are inadequate or have been disrupted (WHO, no date). Humans generally acquire the disease directly or indirectly from infected animals, or occupational exposure to infected or contaminated animal products. Control in livestock is therefore the key to reduced incidence in humans. The disease is generally regarded as being non-contagious (WHO, no date). The infected host sheds the vegetative bacilli onto the ground and these sporulate on exposure to the air. The spores, which can persist in soil for decades, may displace up to the topsoil, following grass growth or flooding, creating favourable conditions for anthrax. Grazing animals may take up the spore and get infected, when germination and multiplication can again take place upon the site of infection. Flies appear to play an important role in large outbreaks in endemic areas. Humans acquire anthrax from handling carcasses, hides, bones, etc. from animals that died of the disease (WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008). More than 95% of human anthrax cases take the cutaneous form and result from handling infected carcasses or hides, hair, meat or bones from such carcasses. All three forms (cutaneous, gastrointestinal, inhalational) are potentially fatal if untreated, but the cutaneous form is more often self-limiting. Data from pre-antibiotic and vaccine days indicate that 10%–40% of untreated cutaneous cases may be expected to result in death with some geographical and temporal variations (WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008). Bacillus anthracis has always been high on the list of potential agents with respect to biological warfare and bioterrorism. It has been used in that context on at least two occasions, prepared for use on several other occasions and been the named agent in many threats and hoaxes (WHO, FAO and OIE, 2008)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/54f30cfb-4d26-44c3-aa8f-aecf11e82957","prefLabel":{"en":"Disruptive innovation"},"definition":{"en":"Demand-led technological change that leads to significant system change and is characterised by strong exponential growth."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4925183d-e56e-4b59-81ad-312659751359","prefLabel":{"en":"Drainage"},"definition":{"en":"Artificial lowering of the soil water table (IPCC, 2013)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4fee4994-6432-409d-8c9c-f46b3a6d6dc5","prefLabel":{"en":"Driver"},"definition":{"en":"Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in a system (adapted from MA, 2005)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7a1449f4-354a-4384-b187-c2685401d3d5","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster risk drivers"},"definition":{"en":"Processes or conditions, related to the workings of a particular development model or practice, that influence the level of disaster risk by creating or increasing hazard, exposure and vulnerability or reducing capacity. Disaster risk drivers — also referred to as underlying disaster risk factors — include poverty and inequality, climate change and variability, unplanned and rapid urbanization, and the lack of disaster risk considerations in land, environmental and natural resource management, as well as compounding factors such as demographic change, non-disaster risk-informed policies, the inadequacies of regulations and incentives for private disaster risk reduction investment, complex supply chains, the limited availability of technology, unsustainable uses of natural resources, declining ecosystems, pandemics and epidemics (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster risk may result from one or more of the drivers mentioned above."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6a91e56f-a5b7-4b46-8f2c-a8a3fa8da7c3","prefLabel":{"en":"Non-climatic driver (Non-climate driver)"},"definition":{"en":"An agent or process outside the climate system that influences a human or natural system."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/22a93ef2-31e4-4b44-ad1e-06d4ecdb5b16","prefLabel":{"en":"Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO)"},"definition":{"en":"The EECO is a period of geological time that occurred about 53 to 49 million years ago, during the Eocene Epoch. Continental positions at this time were somewhat different to present due to tectonic plate movements. Geological data indicate that the EECO was a period of relatively high atmospheric CO2 concentrations (about 1150–2500 ppmv) and relative warmth (global mean surface temperature was about 10–18 °C above the 1850–1900 reference), and polar ice sheets were absent."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/60d1ce77-2692-4c06-a872-a859c22f7952","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth system feedbacks"},"definition":{"en":"See Climate feedback."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9c3dd719-1334-43f0-bfb3-9ac618c5dfcf","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth system sensitivity"},"definition":{"en":"The equilibrium surface temperature response of the coupled atmosphere–ocean–cryosphere–vegetation–carbon cycle system to a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration is referred to as Earth system sensitivity. Because it allows ice sheets to adjust to the external perturbation, it may differ substantially from the equilibrium climate sensitivity derived from coupled atmosphere–ocean models."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aeca7a10-616d-42a9-9e0d-d52fbdb65762","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth's energy flows"},"definition":{"en":"The time-mean (or representative) energy exchanges within the climate system (including energy energy exchanges at the surface and top-of-atmosphere). This also includes horizontal ocean and atmospheric heat transports."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e2567a60-f383-4653-873d-e9f35728c4f4","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth's energy imbalance"},"definition":{"en":"The persistent and positive (downward) net top of atmosphere energy flux associated with greenhouse gas forcing of the climate system."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8faa05a5-c00a-4dbe-9eff-49b50a611c62","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth's radiative response"},"definition":{"en":"The product of global mean surface air temperature (GSAT) change and the net feedback parameter (i.e. sum of all feedbacks), which determines the net top-of-atmosphere radiative flux that opposes a change in radiative forcing. Units: W m-2."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e4fac909-6383-4ba9-80bf-a9da597e8304","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth’s energy budget"},"definition":{"en":"encompasses the major energy flows of relevance for the climate system: the top-of-atmosphere energy budget; the surface energy budget; changes in the global energy inventory and internal flows of energy within the climate system that characterize the climate state."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58e9ed40-1349-4c81-a57a-c19271a25fa1","prefLabel":{"en":"Global energy budget"},"definition":{"en":"For a given time period, the global energy budget expresses the balance between change in the global energy inventory, the time-integrated effective radiative forcing and time-integrated radiative response of the climate system. Typical units: Joules."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17a912ad-36b6-47e3-8ec9-5a8c29738fe3","prefLabel":{"en":"Global energy inventory"},"definition":{"en":"quantifies the excess energy absorbed or lost by the Earth system (ocean, land, atmosphere and cryosphere), mostly in the form of heat, associated with radiative forcing of the climate. Typical units: Joules."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/82229ee7-5ecb-4980-83f2-be552d436752","prefLabel":{"en":"Surface energy budget"},"definition":{"en":"comprises the exchanges of heat at the surface of the Earth associated with both radiative and non-radiative processes. Typical units: W m-2."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4a96d1a9-df9f-4d1f-bc59-1c676810e7c0","prefLabel":{"en":"Top-of-atmosphere energy budget"},"definition":{"en":"Comprises the energy fluxes associated with incoming solar radiation, reflected solar radiation and emitted thermal radiation. Typical units: W m-2."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d63d7de0-78ee-4dcd-a6c3-6840dc666824","prefLabel":{"en":"Economic potential"},"definition":{"en":"The portion of the technical potential for which the social benefits exceed the social costs, taking into account a social discount rate and the value of externalities."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c81e6f1f-7677-49fa-8cce-1ad41c56d261","prefLabel":{"en":"Education"},"altLabel":{"en":["education","education and learning","education2030","educational","educator","educators"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/31177e44-53f4-49ca-ad6e-632b5237847a","prefLabel":{"en":"Effective equilibrium climate sensitivity"},"definition":{"en":"An estimate of the surface temperature response to a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration that is evaluated from model output or observations for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a measure of the strengths of the climate feedbacks at a particular time and may vary with forcing history and climate state, and therefore may differ from equilibrium climate sensitivity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/08d72c45-70d3-4983-9b15-d7592758dbf5","prefLabel":{"en":"Effective radiative forcing"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a05743f6-d849-40ea-8f32-b3b613ce9779","prefLabel":{"en":"Adjustments (in relation to effective radiative forcing)"},"definition":{"en":"The response to an agent perturbing the climate system that is driven directly by the agent, independently of any change in global surface temperature. For example, carbon dioxide and aerosols, by altering internal heating and cooling rates within the atmosphere, can each cause changes to cloud cover and other variables thereby producing an effective radiative forcing even in the absence of any surface warming or cooling. Adjustments are usually rapid in the sense that they begin to occur right away, before climate feedbacks which are driven by global surface warming (although some adjustments may still take significant time to proceed to completion, for example those involving vegetation or ice sheets) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84e650a3-5d44-4b68-a988-b3fe24e6fe91","prefLabel":{"en":"El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)"},"definition":{"en":"The term El Niño was initially used to describe a warm-water current that periodically flows along the coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. It has since become identified with warming of the tropical Pacific Ocean east of the dateline. This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of a global-scale tropical and subtropical surface pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere–ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two to about seven years, is known as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The warm and cold phases of ENSO are called El Niño and La Niña, respectively. ENSO is often measured by the surface pressure anomaly difference between Tahiti and Darwin and/or the sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. This phenomenon has a great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature and precipitation patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts of the world through global teleconnections. See Section AIV.2.3 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ff6d1955-1d19-4257-a203-175b2aef7ac8","prefLabel":{"en":"Central Pacific El Niño"},"definition":{"en":"An El Niño event in which sea surface temperature anomalies are stronger in the central equatorial Pacific than in the east. Also known as a Modoki El Niño event."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/13eff5ce-ee1d-48d1-8710-2efeb785dff9","prefLabel":{"en":"Electromagnetic spectrum"},"definition":{"en":"Wavelength, frequency or energy range of all electromagnetic radiation. In terms of solar radiation, the spectral irradiance is the power arriving at the Earth per unit area, per unit wavelength."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a2b0f22a-3dea-4e49-ab30-d2d8847bb453","prefLabel":{"en":"Elevation-dependent warming (EDW)"},"definition":{"en":"Characteristic of many regions where mountains are located, in which past and/or future surface air temperature changes vary neither uniformly nor linearly with elevation. In many cases, warming is enhanced within or above a certain elevation range."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/723bf181-c7d6-4ec9-abe8-809815990429","prefLabel":{"en":"Embodied (embedded) [emissions, water, land]"},"definition":{"en":"The total emissions [water use, land use] generated [used] in the production of goods and services regardless of the location and timing of those emissions [water use, land use] in the production process. This includes emissions [water use, land use] within the country used to produce goods or services for the country’s own use, but also includes the emissions [water use, land use] related to the production of such goods or services in other countries that are then consumed in another country through imports. Such emissions [water, land] are termed ‘embodied’ or ‘embedded’ emissions, or in some cases, (particularly with water) as ‘virtual water use’ (Davis and Caldeira, 2010; Allan, 2005; MacDonald et al., 2015)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dd979c41-7a4c-46ad-8296-a373b73288a4","prefLabel":{"en":"Emergence (of the climate signal)"},"definition":{"en":"Emergence of a climate change signal or trend refers to when a change in climate (the ‘signal’) becomes larger than the amplitude of natural or internal variations (defining the ‘noise’), This concept is often expressed as a ‘signal-to-noise’ ratio and emergence occurs at a defined threshold of this ratio (e.g., S/N > 1 or 2). Emergence can refer to changes relative to a historical or modern baseline (usually at least 20 years long) and can also be expressed in terms of time (time of emergence) or in terms of a global warming level. Emergence is also used to refer to a time when we can expect to see a response to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (emergence with respect to mitigation). Emergence can be estimated using observations and/or model simulations."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/de2978cc-9f12-4094-b550-86d19a29be39","prefLabel":{"en":"Emission and Socio-economic Scenario Ensemble"},"definition":{"en":"A set of modelled emission and socio-economic scenarios collected in a database. The scenarios can come from a single multi-model study with systematic variation of harmonised scenario designs (structured ensemble) or from multiple studies in the literature (unstructured ensemble). Depending on the scope of the ensemble, variation of the results across the scenarios in the ensemble give an indication of the spread of results in the literature (unstructured ensemble), or an estimate of uncertainties due to different modelling structures and methodologies (structured ensemble)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e2387623-b824-457b-8c06-6ba27a14bf2f","prefLabel":{"en":"Emission factor/Emissions intensity"},"definition":{"en":"A coefficient that quantifies the emissions or removals of a gas per unit activity. Emission factors are often based on a sample of measurement data, averaged to develop a representative rate of emission for a given activity level under a given set of operating conditions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9587ad0d-a0f1-4f0e-9dd9-821a7924c222","prefLabel":{"en":"Emission scenario"},"definition":{"en":"A plausible representation of the future development of emissions of substances that are potentially radiatively active (e.g., greenhouse gases, aerosols) based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about driving forces (such as demographic and socioeconomic development, technological change) and their key relationships. Concentration scenarios, derived from emission scenarios, are used as input to a climate model to compute climate projections. In IPCC (1992) a set of emission scenarios was presented which were used as a basis for the climate projections in IPCC (1996). These emission scenarios are referred to as the IS92 scenarios. In the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović and Swart, 2000) emission scenarios, the so-called SRES scenarios, were published, some of which were used, among others, as a basis for the climate projections presented in Chapters 9 to 11 of IPCC (2001) and Chapters 10 and 11 of IPCC (2007). New emission scenarios for climate change, the four Representative Concentration Pathways, were developed for, but independently of, the present IPCC assessment."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/46629c64-1639-4a38-b4f5-2088135222ab","prefLabel":{"en":"Emission trajectories"},"definition":{"en":"A projected development in time of the emission of a greenhouse gas (GHG) or group of GHGs, aerosols, and GHG precursors."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/79ae254f-fe72-4358-9722-73669c940f18","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy"},"altLabel":{"en":["energy","energy behaviour","energy challenge","energy class"]},"definition":{"en":"The power of 'doing work' possessed at any instant by a body or system of bodies. Energy is classified in a variety of types and becomes available to human ends when it flows from one place to another or is converted from one type into another. AR5-WG3 (04/2014)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/697aebc7-7160-4bd3-a532-fe35f87a8ab1","prefLabel":{"en":"Final energy"},"definition":{"en":"The energy delivered to final users (firms, individuals, institutions), where it becomes usable energy in supplying energy services (e.g., light, heat, mobility)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a8523b5a-c5f2-4742-8979-a17065c18cdf","prefLabel":{"en":"Primary energy"},"definition":{"en":"The energy that is embodied in resources as they exist in nature (e.g., coal, biomass uranium, solar radiation, wind, ocean currents) (Grubler et al. 2012). [Note: Primary energy is defined in several alternative ways. The method used in this report is the direct equivalent method, which counts one unit of secondary energy provided from non-combustible sources as one unit of primary energy. For more details on the methodology, see Section 7 in Working Group III Annex II.]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6711212c-47ca-43c4-a534-7d7577de21bc","prefLabel":{"en":"Renewable energy (RE)"},"definition":{"en":"Any form of energy that is replenished by natural processes at a rate that equals or exceeds its rate of use."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6db5e967-960e-446d-8dc6-e5b5bb0969ff","prefLabel":{"en":"Variable renewable energy (VRE)"},"definition":{"en":"Renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy whose output is determined by weather, in contrast to ‘dispatchable’ generators that adjust their output as a reaction to economic incentives. Variable renewables have also been termed intermittent, fluctuating, or non-dispatchable. (Hirth, 2013)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f6e0a1d1-07a4-450a-8eb9-aefbd71fa967","prefLabel":{"en":"Wind energy"},"definition":{"en":"Kinetic energy from airflow arising from the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface. The wind’s kinetic energy is converted to mechanical shaft energy and electricity by a wind turbine, a rotating machine. A wind farm, wind project, wind park, or wind power plant is a group of wind turbines interconnected to a common utility system through a system of transformers, distribution lines, and (usually) one substation."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9c10ef9f-bade-4f93-a278-93652d0ddaf4","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy access"},"definition":{"en":"Access to clean, reliable and affordable energy services for cooking and heating, lighting, communications and productive uses (with special reference to Sustainable Development Goal 7) (AGECC, 2010)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6eb67a23-1b3b-4dc1-91ac-4a20bd7d6227","prefLabel":{"en":"Access to modern energy services"},"definition":{"en":"Access to clean, reliable and affordable energy services for cooking, heating, lighting, communications, and productive uses (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3c56d0e4-11c9-4f1a-b0b8-12f528bd7d03","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy poverty"},"definition":{"en":"The absence of sufficient choice in accessing adequate, affordable, reliable, high quality, safe and environmentally benign energy services to support economic and human development (Reddy, 2000)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/141713a5-c923-46fe-81e6-49f2cad7e598","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy balance"},"definition":{"en":"The difference between the total incoming and total outgoing energy. If this balance is positive, warming occurs; if it is negative, cooling occurs. Averaged over the globe and over long time periods, this balance must be zero. Because the climate system derives virtually all its energy from the Sun, zero balance implies that, globally, the absorbed solar radiation, that is, incoming solar radiation minus reflected solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere and outgoing longwave radiation emitted by the climate system are equal."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1cf04762-8039-43a9-8035-75eae52e5f26","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy balance model (EBM)"},"definition":{"en":"An energy balance model is a simplified climate model that is typically used as an emulator of climate to analyse the energy budget of the Earth to compute changes in the climate. In its simplest form, there is no explicit spatial dimension, and the model then provides an estimate of the changes in globally averaged temperature computed from the changes in radiation. This zero-dimensional energy balance model can be extended to a one-dimensional or two-dimensional model if changes to the energy budget with respect to latitude, or both latitude and longitude, are explicitly considered."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1f2f096a-9608-41cf-b66f-25935fe3e75c","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy efficiency"},"definition":{"en":"The ratio of output or useful energy or energy services or other useful physical outputs obtained from a system, conversion process, transmission or storage activity to the input of energy (measured as kWh kWh-1, tonnes kWh-1 or any other physical measure of useful output like tonne-km transported). Energy efficiency is often described by energy intensity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73a12dca-345d-4ffc-b588-a5176501e435","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy security"},"definition":{"en":"The goal of a given country, or the global community as a whole, to maintain an adequate, stable and predictable energy supply. Measures encompass safeguarding the sufficiency of energy resources to meet national energy demand at competitive and stable prices and the resilience of the energy supply; enabling development and deployment of technologies; building sufficient infrastructure to generate, store and transmit energy supplies and ensuring enforceable contracts of delivery."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ce53eab6-be2f-4aa7-975e-5354aa5e0815","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy services"},"definition":{"en":"A benefit or amenity (e.g., mobility, communication, thermal comfort) received as a result of energy or other resources use."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c4f68dfe-de66-4046-b493-f14974a359a2","prefLabel":{"en":"Engaged research"},"definition":{"en":"Engaged research encompasses the different ways that researchers meaningfully interact with various stakeholders over any or all stages of a research process, from issue formulation, the production or co-creation of new knowledge, to knowledge evaluation and dissemination (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/66b81f62-57b2-4fc7-a8f5-bdb6a4991b0b","prefLabel":{"en":"Enhanced weathering"},"definition":{"en":"A proposed method to increase the natural rate of removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere using silicate and carbonate rocks. The active surface area of these minerals is increased by grinding, before they are actively added to soil, beaches or the open ocean."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/be466cf6-85d8-4ccd-be81-86779de24734","prefLabel":{"en":"Enteric fermentation"},"definition":{"en":"A natural part of the digestion process in ruminant animal species (domesticated and wild), such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, antelope, etc. Microorganisms (bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa and viruses) present in the fore-stomach (reticulorumen or rumen) breakdown plant biomass to produce substrates that can be used by the animal for energy and growth with methane produced as a by-product. Fermentation end-products such as hydrogen, carbon dioxide, formate and methyl-containing compounds are important substrates for the production of methane by the rumen’s methane-forming archaea (known as methanogens)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a4b1ee2b-13ff-4485-a362-59aef833068e","prefLabel":{"en":"Equality"},"definition":{"en":"A principle that ascribes equal worth to all human beings, including equal opportunities, rights and obligations, irrespective of origins."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/60ef6a61-e827-4896-a46f-54f3457eb21c","prefLabel":{"en":"Inequality"},"definition":{"en":"Uneven opportunities and social positions, and processes of discrimination within a group or society, based on gender, class, ethnicity, age and (dis)ability, often produced by uneven development. Income inequality refers to gaps between the highest and lowest income earners within a country and between countries."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/73035aaf-3bf1-437b-8aec-77996180cd1d","prefLabel":{"en":"Equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS)"},"definition":{"en":"The equilibrium (steady state) change in the surface temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration from pre-industrial conditions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0624caae-0301-4b7e-8551-12ee2a83a65a","prefLabel":{"en":"Equity"},"definition":{"en":"The principle of being fair and impartial, and a basis for understanding how the impacts and responses to climate change, including costs and benefits, are distributed in and by society in more or less equal ways. Often aligned with ideas of equality, fairness and justice and applied with respect to equity in the responsibility for, and distribution of, climate impacts and policies across society, generations and gender, and in the sense of who participates and controls the processes of decision-making."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ec1fd5b8-a4c5-4325-a1bf-db827fac805f","prefLabel":{"en":"Distributive equity"},"definition":{"en":"Equity in the consequences, outcomes, costs and benefits of actions or policies. In the case of climate change or climate policies for different people, places and countries, including equity aspects of sharing burdens and benefits for mitigation and adaptation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/447271d4-3ab6-4abf-a7e3-8a81fa4af030","prefLabel":{"en":"Gender equity"},"definition":{"en":"Equity between women and men with regard to their rights, resources and opportunities. In the case of climate change, gender equity recognises that women are often more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and may be disadvantaged in the process and outcomes of climate policy."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7e67cace-4304-41c4-95d6-949f36c96a23","prefLabel":{"en":"Inter-generational equity"},"definition":{"en":"Equity between generations. In the context of climate change, inter-generational equity acknowledges that the effects of past and present emissions, vulnerabilities and policies impose costs and benefits for people in the future and of different age groups."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42a6bae6-54ab-42c8-8b31-2687775ed2fa","prefLabel":{"en":"Ethics"},"definition":{"en":"Ethics involves questions of justice and value. Justice is concerned with right and wrong, equity and fairness, and, in general, with the rights to which people and living beings are entitled. Value is a matter of worth, benefit or good."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/026c290f-3a95-4551-beab-61854a73bc06","prefLabel":{"en":"Ethnography"},"definition":{"en":"Ethnography is a qualitative research method in which a researcher—an ethnographer—studies a particular social/cultural group with the aim to better understand it. Ethnography is both a process (e.g., one does ethnography) and a product (e.g., one writes an ethnography). In doing ethnography, an ethnographer actively participates in the group in order to gain an insider’s perspective of the group and to have experiences similar to the group members. In writing ethnography, an ethnographer creates an account of the group based on this participation, interviews with group members, and an analysis of group documents and artefacts (Kramer and Adams, 2017)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7992f0eb-8196-4942-a43a-3b1d7bf93a00","prefLabel":{"en":"Exergy"},"definition":{"en":"Capacity of energy flows to perform useful work. Exergy is a quality (versatility) indicator of energy flows which ranges from low (e.g., low-temperature heat, biomass) to high (e.g., electricity). Exergy efficiency describes how much useful work can be performed by a particular energy flow in relation to the thermodynamic maximum possible. It can be determined for all energy flows and energy conversion steps, also including alternative service delivery systems. (Grubler et al., 2012)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b79024ce-8d5b-45b0-ad31-f9ee368f106a","prefLabel":{"en":"Extended concentration pathways (ECPs)"},"definition":{"en":"Extended concentration pathways describe extensions of the RCPs from 2100 to 2300 that were calculated using simple rules generated by stakeholder consultations, and do not represent fully consistent scenarios."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/966d69e8-7e7e-4637-99c6-5c624b7fc0c9","prefLabel":{"en":"External forcing"},"definition":{"en":"External forcing refers to a forcing agent outside the climate system causing a change in the climate system. Volcanic eruptions, solar variations and changes in Earth’s orbit, as well as anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use are external forcings."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6c640e7a-c604-49a6-8d9c-66518a696338","prefLabel":{"en":"Externality / external cost / external benefit"},"definition":{"en":"Externalities arise from a human activity, when agents responsible for the activity do not take full account of the activity's impact on others' production and consumption possibilities, and no compensation exists for such impacts. When the impact is negative, they are external costs. When positive they are referred to as external benefits."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4991b859-ac66-40b5-8661-679083548661","prefLabel":{"en":"Extreme sea level (ESL)"},"definition":{"en":"The occurrence of an exceptionally low or high local sea-surface height, arising from (a combination of) short term phenomena (e.g., storm surges, tides and waves). Relative sea level changes affect extreme sea levels directly by shifting the mean water levels and indirectly by modulating the propagation of tides, waves and/or surges due to increased water depth. In addition, extreme sea levels can be influenced by changes in the frequency, tracks or strength of weather systems and storms, or due to anthropogenically induced changes such as the modification of coastlines or dredging. In turn, changes in any or all of the contributions to extreme sea levels may lead to long term relative sea-level changes. Alternate expressions for ESL may be used depending on the processes resolved.Extreme still water level (ESWL) refers to the combined contribution of relative sea level change, tides and storm surges. Wind-waves also contribute to coastal sea level via three processes: infragravity waves (lower frequency gravity waves generated by wind waves), wave setup (time-mean sea-level elevation due to wave energy dissipation) and swash (vertical displacement up the shore-face induced by individual waves). Extreme total water level (ETWL) is the ESWL plus wave setup. When considering coastal impacts, swash is also important, and extreme coastal water level (ECWL) is used."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/28367cb3-95e6-495b-a9b4-5a7739cae9d4","prefLabel":{"en":"Extreme Temperatures"},"altLabel":{"en":["extreme temperature","extreme temperatures"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ac164888-e082-4e50-b300-65f1d11030db","prefLabel":{"en":"Extreme weather event"},"definition":{"en":"An event that is rare at a particular place and time of year. Definitions of ‘rare’ vary, but an extreme weather event would normally be as rare as, or rarer than, the 10th or 90th percentile of a probability density function estimated from observations. By definition, the characteristics of what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/04adfcfb-facc-42ad-ae3d-6e01ff1ed2a4","prefLabel":{"en":"Faculae"},"definition":{"en":"Bright patches on the Sun. The area covered by faculae is greater during periods of high solar activity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e0ed0457-87ff-403d-b460-b35e4dc2fcb3","prefLabel":{"en":"Fairness"},"definition":{"en":"Impartial and just treatment without favouritism or discrimination in which each person is considered of equal worth with equal opportunity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dc6136da-50df-4a59-afe1-0863018dcda1","prefLabel":{"en":"Feasibility"},"definition":{"en":"In the IPCC report, feasibility refers to the potential for a mitigation or adaptation option to be implemented. Factors influencing feasibility are context-dependent, temporally dynamic and may vary between different groups and actors. Feasibility depends on geophysical, environmental-ecological, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors that enable or constrain the implementation of an option. The feasibility of options may change when different options are combined, and increase when enabling conditions are strengthened."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/60e81638-b792-4a04-905d-4528dce22873","prefLabel":{"en":"Feedback loops"},"definition":{"en":"A feedback loop arises from causal relations within a system and either enhances or limits a change in the system. Feedback loops may be positive or negative in nature. A negative feedback loop reduces the effect of change and helps maintain balance. A positive feedback loop increases the effect of the change and produces instability (modified from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Global Monitoring Laboratory, by the DRI Lexicon Project Expert Panel, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In climate change, a feedback loop is something that speeds up or slows down a warming trend. Positive feedback accelerates a temperature rise, whereas negative feedback slows it down.\n\nProtocols for design and management of infrastructure for resilience should take feedback loops into consideration.\n\nFeedback loops are important in learning and decision-making processes, which may be single-loop, double-loop or triple-loop, depending on the type and extent of change triggered by the learning from a particular experience.\n\nFeedback loops are significant for building the intelligence of a system to respond to future shocks and stresses based on past, current and projected performance for a dynamic risk context such as climate change (DRI Lexicon Project Expert Panel, 2023)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5a02c7e5-d036-4ba0-9a00-6ee891f9fde5","prefLabel":{"en":"Feedback cascade"},"definition":{"en":"Cases in which impacts propagating from one system component to another may actually feed back to earlier links of the cascade, hence adding complexity to the impact transmission and its influence on the recipient risk. For example, perishable food products affected by weather at a source location may suffer quality losses during transportation to manufacturing plants, resulting in requests for additional high quality produce from suppliers at points earlier in the supply chain (Carter et al., 2021)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bd029461-fcb3-421f-8952-8c247152d448","prefLabel":{"en":"Fire weather"},"definition":{"en":"Weather conditions conducive to triggering and sustaining wildfires, usually based on a set of indicators and combinations of indicators including temperature, soil moisture, humidity, and wind. Fire weather does not include the presence or absence of fuel load."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fbf71302-072c-46e9-a8cb-fa7926b5c2ea","prefLabel":{"en":"Fitness-for-purpose"},"definition":{"en":"The suitability of a model (or other resource, such as a dataset or method) for a particular task, such as quantifying the contribution of increased greenhouse gas concentrations to recent changes in global mean surface temperature or projecting changes in drought frequency in a region under a given scenario. Assessment of a model’s fitness-for-purpose can be informed both by how the model represents relevant physical processes and by how it scores on relevant performance metrics."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/22f3c0f3-4666-4f30-bb49-dbd7b3b889cc","prefLabel":{"en":"Flaring"},"definition":{"en":"Open air burning of waste gases and volatile liquids, through a chimney, at oil wells or rigs, in refineries or chemical plants, and at landfills."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc76a9ef-e43e-41e6-8dba-7c3e33a09ba6","prefLabel":{"en":"Flexibility"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of an infrastructure system including its governance, material assets and human resources, to adjust in business-as-usual and to shocks/stresses (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In planning for business/service continuity, for infrastructure systems, flexibility includes rearrangement of management structures and power devolution for decision-making to mitigate or manage crises.\n\nFlexibility of a system is useful to secure core functions, sometimes at the expense of ancillary/non-core functions/components of the system.\""]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c92e01c6-d47e-4403-8d0f-7ae26c20f31e","prefLabel":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management"},"definition":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management activities address and seek to avoid the development of new or increased disaster risks. They focus on addressing disaster risks that may develop in future if disaster risk reduction policies are not put in place (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Examples include well-designed and built resilient infrastructure, ensuring robustness of assets, planning for flexibility, safe failure, and redundancy in service provision. Feedback loops are critical for this purpose. See also “Feedback Loops”. In the context of resilient infrastructure, they focus on reducing risk."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/82bc6887-a76c-40f8-b5da-79325bdfc1a8","prefLabel":{"en":"Flexibility (demand and supply)"},"definition":{"en":"Adjustment of energy load characteristics by technical and/or non-technical change to balance energy demand and supply."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/26149376-5778-4c88-b1b6-037b5892c2b2","prefLabel":{"en":"Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Pleuroneumonía contagiosa caprina","Pleuropneumonie Contagieuse Caprine","контагиозная плевропневмония коз","山羊传染性胸膜肺炎"]},"definition":{"en":"Foot-and-mouth disease is caused by a virus of the family Picornaviridae, genus Aphthovirus. It is a highly contagious and economically important disease of cloven-hoofed domestic animals (cattle, buffaloes, pigs, sheep, goats) and wild animals (FAO, 2012; OIE, 2018).FAO, 2012. Foot-and-mouth disease Frequently Asked Questions. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 3 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a devastating animal disease affecting all cloven-hoofed animals, both domestic and wild species. The viruses that cause FMD are among of the most infectious agents known to veterinary or human medicine, which is why it strikes deep fear into livestock farmers, especially in countries that are free from the disease (FAO, 2012). FMD is characterised by the formation of vesicles (blisters) in and around the oral cavity, feet and on the teats. It has huge detrimental impact on livelihoods, food security and national economies through loss of milk yields, lowered fertility and reduced or prohibited access to markets (FAO, 2012; OIE, 2018). The most common way for the FMD virus to spread is by animal movements that bring healthy animals into contact with FMD-infected animals. Secretions from sick animals are extremely infectious. FMD-infected animals grazing together, sharing a similar drinking water point can lead to exchange of contaminated saliva. Cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats are especially vulnerable to infection transmitted by aerosols (moisture in exhalation), which is the main source of infection in animals living in close quarters (FAO, 2012). In rare cases, FMD infection has appeared to ‘jump’ over long distances including large bodies of water, but this usually only occurs if many sick animals are densely housed together creating an ‘infected plume’ (FAO, 2012). The morbidity rate may approach 100% in susceptible cattle populations and death can occur in young animals. FMD is estimated to circulate in 77% of the global livestock population, in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, as well as in a limited area of South America. Low income and lower-middle income countries bear 75% of the global costs of FMD prevention and control and Africa and Eurasia are the regions contributing the most to that cost, accounting for 50% and 33% of the global expenditure of FMD control and prevention, respectively (OIE, 2018). Thus, it threatens the livelihood of millions of poor livestock keepers and food security in the FMD endemic regions. FMD-infected countries are excluded from international trade of live susceptible animals, their meat and meat products (FAO, 2012). Countries that are currently FMD-free remain under constant threat of an incursion. Although FMD had been largely controlled in developed nations, in 2001, an outbreak in the UK spread to the Netherlands, with smaller outbreaks in France and Ireland, before being brought under control by widespread culling. The experience left its mark on the psyche of many of the farmers that lived through the tragedy: the UK alone suffered economic losses of more than USD 12 billion, and some 6.5 million sheep, cattle and pigs were slaughtered to halt the spread of the disease (FAO, 2012). FMD can be controlled by vaccination, however there are seven immunologically distinct serotypes: A, O, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3, and Asia1 which do not confer cross immunity (OIE, 2018). There is no health risk to humans from FMD; regardless, meat, dairy and animal products destined for human consumption should come only from healthy animal sources (FAO, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/29cd327b-76af-4b03-8d38-ecb7eb9347f9","prefLabel":{"en":"Foraminifera"},"definition":{"en":"Single-celled, sand-sized marine organisms (protists) that possess a hard test mainly composed of agglutinated walls (detrital grains glued together with organic cement) or calcium carbonate (predominantly calcite). They are used to reconstruct a range of (paleo)environmental variables such as salinity, temperature, oxygenation, oxygen isotope composition and organic and nutrient flux."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/834bc79a-1a20-4d18-b86d-0ca5fb266894","prefLabel":{"en":"Forcing"},"definition":{"en":"Radiative forcing is the change in the net, downward minus upward, radiative flux (expressed in W m2 ) at the tropopause or top of atmosphere due to a change in an driver of climate change, such as a change in the concentration of carbon dioxide or the output of the Sun. The traditional radiative forcing is computed with all tropospheric properties held fixed at their unperturbed values, and after allowing for stratospheric temperatures, if perturbed, to readjust to radiative-dynamical equilibrium. Radiative forcing is called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric temperature is accounted for. The radiative forcing once rapid adjustments are accounted for is termed the effective radiative forcing. Radiative forcing is not to be confused with cloud radiative forcing, which describes anunrelated measure of the impact of clouds on the radiative flux at the top of the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/37e8576b-8e1f-4299-a559-1469f8871c3d","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest management"},"definition":{"en":"A system of practices for stewardship and use of forest land aimed at fulfilling relevant ecological (including biological diversity), economic and social functions of the forest in a sustainable manner (UNFCCC, 2002)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7969eb02-b3cb-40f2-bb0d-2a112908515d","prefLabel":{"en":"Fossil fuel emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) (in particular carbon dioxide (CO2)), other trace gases and aerosols resulting from the combustion of fuels from fossil carbon deposits such as oil, gas and coal."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dd7deb7a-91c4-4331-97d0-5099f684e92d","prefLabel":{"en":"Fossil fuels"},"definition":{"en":"Carbon-based fuels from fossil hydrocarbon deposits, including coal, oil and natural gas."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6a172e46-96b1-48fa-8eec-b42aea759457","prefLabel":{"en":"Framework"},"altLabel":{"en":["framework structures","framework."]},"definition":{"en":"Set of beliefs, ideas or rules that is used as a basis for making judgements, decisions (Oxford Dictionary n.d. in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c0c36957-d8b4-4877-9a56-8c67cb800fca","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk framework"},"definition":{"en":"A common framework for describing and assessing risk across all three [IPCC] Working Groups is adopted to promote clear and consistent communication of risks and to better inform risk assessment and decision-making related to climate change (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c4791365-5073-459d-b0c9-be36d8bd3d7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Frequency"},"definition":{"en":"The rate of recurrence of any periodic phenomenon, often associated with waves of all kinds (American Meteorological Society, 2024)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7c28c802-1af3-42e3-b5b7-d325c1d3b7ee","prefLabel":{"en":"Fugitive emissions (oil and natural gas systems)"},"definition":{"en":"The release of greenhouse gases that occur during the exploration, processing and delivery of fossil fuels to the point of final use. This excludes greenhouse gas emissions from fuel combustion for the production of useful heat or power. It encompasses venting, flaring, and leaks."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/be3d3b01-6d9e-4b26-aed4-c9160bbf0b19","prefLabel":{"en":"Function"},"altLabel":{"en":["functions"]},"definition":{"en":"A function can be defined in a mathematical sense, as an expression, rule, or law that defines a relationship between one variable (the independent variable) and another variable (the dependent variable). A function can be used to describe quantitative and qualitative relationships (Britannica, 2021 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9ac610b0-cc66-431a-915c-88e5d5946abd","prefLabel":{"en":"Geoid"},"definition":{"en":"The equipotential surface having the same geopotential at each latitude and longitude around the world (geodesists denote this potential W0) that best approximates the mean sea level. It is the surface of reference for measurement of altitude. In practice, several variations of definitions of the geoid exist depending on the way the permanent tide (the zero-frequency gravitational tide due to the Sun and Moon) is considered in geodetic studies."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fc9bd72b-d5c7-49c6-853a-71d60ca926c3","prefLabel":{"en":"Geomagnetic Storm (including energetic particles related to space weather, and solar flare radio blackout [R Scale])"},"altLabel":{"en":["Electromagnetic pulse (natural),","Magnetic storm","Solar storm,","Space weather,"]},"definition":{"en":"A geomagnetic storm is a worldwide disturbance of the Earth’s magnetic field induced by a solar storm (Cannon et al., 2013).Cannon, P., M. Angling, L. Barclay, A. Thomson and C. Underwood, 2013. Extreme Space Weather: Impacts on engineered systems and infrastructure. Royal Academy of Engineering.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A geomagnetic storm refers to disturbances of the Earth’s magnetosphere, caused by sudden strong variations in the speed, density and magnetic properties of the solar wind. The resulting magnetic field variations within the magnetosphere generate electric currents in long conductors such as power lines and pipelines. The effects of geomagnetic storms range from mild (interference with aeromagnetic surveys) to extreme (electric power grids may experience blackouts or collapse) (NRC, 2019). The largest recorded solar superstorm is known as the Carrington Event which occurred in 1859. It was associated with a large solar flare and the associated coronal mass ejections took only 17.6 hours to travel from the Sun to the Earth. It caused aurora in many parts of the world where they are not normally seen –even in Hawaii. One consequence of this solar superstorm was that telegraph systems across the world misbehaved with operators able to receive messages despite having disconnected their power supplies (Boteler, 2006; Clauer and Siscoe, 2006). In March 1989, the third strongest recorded geomagnetic storm struck Earth. In less than a minute, induced current in transmission lines caused overload safety systems to trip closing down sections of the Quebec power network. A cascade effect then caused the network to collapse and the region to fall into darkness. Electricity was unavailable for nine hours, and restoration was made more difficult due to the fact that backup equipment had also been affected by the storm (CAA, 2016). Examples of national geomagnetic storm scales: Geomagnetic Storm Scales used by US: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Space Weather Scales were introduced as a way of communicating to the general public the current and future space weather conditions and their possible effects on people and systems. The scales have numbered levels, analogous to hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes that convey severity. Possible effects at each level are also listed with how often such events happen and give a measure of the intensity of the physical causes (NOAA, 2019). Geomagnetic Storm Scales used by Canada: At the Earth, magnetic storms are characterised by a K-level index that ranges from 0 to 9. Storms having little effect range from K=0–3, mid-level effects would be K=4–7, and strong storms with lots of impact would occur for K>7 (NRC, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/18e566cb-f2a6-4f75-8b1f-e609b6413956","prefLabel":{"en":"Geothermal energy"},"definition":{"en":"Accessible thermal energy stored in the Earth’s interior, in both rock and trapped steam or liquid water (hydrothermal resources), which may be used to generate electric energy in a thermal power plant, or to supply heat to any process requiring it. The main sources of geothermal energy are the residual energy available from planet formation and the energy continuously generated from radionuclide decay."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8732ec37-6b3c-4ecd-8e19-9700a2b9dbfb","prefLabel":{"en":"Gini coefficient"},"definition":{"en":"A statistical measure of dispersion in a distribution and degree of mathematical measure of inequality. For example, it can be used for measuring inequality in income, wealth, carbon emissions, and access to well-being defining services. The dimensionless GINI coefficient ranges between 0 (absolute equality) and 1 (absolute inequality)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d894054-1c35-4a07-be4a-de20d2496ebf","prefLabel":{"en":"Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA)"},"definition":{"en":"The ongoing changes in gravity, rotation and viscoelastic solid Earth deformation (GRD) in response to past changes in the distribution of ice and water on Earth’s surface. On a time scale of decades to tens of millennia following mass redistribution, Earth’s mantle flows viscously as it evolves toward isostatic equilibrium, causing solid Earth movement and geoid changes, which can result in regional-to-local sea level variations."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/be4aace2-2035-4d69-9974-46bda8f8b98e","prefLabel":{"en":"Global carbon budget"},"definition":{"en":"An assessment of carbon cycle sources and sinks on a global level, through the synthesis of evidence for fossil-fuel and cement emissions, landuse change emissions, ocean and land CO2 sinks, and the resulting atmospheric CO2 growth rate. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/112fb029-fc63-4a49-a849-7ec089ade709","prefLabel":{"en":"Global change"},"definition":{"en":"A generic term to describe global scale changes in systems, including the climate system, ecosystems and social-ecological systems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7eb8aae1-d0ad-4745-80b6-1f8e47b1f4ad","prefLabel":{"en":"Global dimming"},"definition":{"en":"Global dimming refers to the observed widespread reduction in the amount of solar radiation received at the Earth’s surface from the 1950s to the 1980s, with an increase in anthropogenic aerosol emissions appearing to have contributed. This was followed by a partial recovery since the 1990s (‘brightening’), particularly in industrialized areas, coincident with a reduction in anthropogenic aerosol emissions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ae5cccae-a488-4a27-a751-5919c503f974","prefLabel":{"en":"Global mean surface air temperature (GSAT)"},"definition":{"en":"Global average of near-surface air temperatures over land, oceans and sea ice. Changes in GSAT are often used as a measure of global temperature change in climate models."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3045a24a-43fc-46b3-abdc-f89c8eec1599","prefLabel":{"en":"Global mean surface temperature (GMST)"},"definition":{"en":"Estimated global average of near-surface air temperatures over land and sea ice, and sea surface temperature (SST) over ice-free ocean regions, with changes normally expressed as departures from a value over a specified reference period."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ebc38117-654a-4c08-a8dd-548d11bbd728","prefLabel":{"en":"Global monsoon"},"definition":{"en":"The global monsoon (GM) is a global-scale solstitial mode that dominates the annual variation of tropical and sub-tropical precipitation and circulation. The GM domain is defined as the area where the annual range of precipitation (local summer minus winter mean precipitation rate) is greater than 2.5 mm day-1, following on from the definition as in Kitoh et al. (2013). Further details on how the GM is defined, used and related to regional monsoons throughout the Report are provided by WGI AR6 Annex V (IPCC 2021b)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3fe4376a-1e18-4f90-b9dc-ad3fbfd7c0f3","prefLabel":{"en":"Australian and Maritime Continent monsoon (AusMCM)"},"definition":{"en":"The Australian–Maritime Continent monsoon (AusMCM) occurs during December-January-February, with the large-scale shift of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone into the Southern Hemisphere and covering northern Australia and the Maritime Continent up to 10°N. The AusMCM is characterized by the seasonal reversal of prevailing easterly winds to westerly winds and the onset of periods of active convection and heavy rainfall. Over northern Australia, the monsoon season generally lasts from December to March and is associated with west to north-westerly inflow of moist winds, producing convection and heavy precipitation. Over the Maritime Continent, the main rainy season south of the equator is centred on December to February with north-westerly monsoon flow at low levels. Further details on how AusMCM is defined and used throughout the Report are provided in Annex V."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dfa2c65e-c5a1-4506-ab5e-b206a21c4d9c","prefLabel":{"en":"East Asian monsoon (EAsiaM)"},"definition":{"en":"The East Asian monsoon (EAsiaM) is the seasonal reversal in wind and precipitation occurring over East Asia, including eastern China, Japan and the Korean peninsula. In contrast to the other monsoons it extends quite far north, out of the tropical belt, and it is largely influenced by subtropical systems and by disturbances from the mid-latitudes. The EAsiaM manifests during boreal summer with warm and wet southerly winds, but also during boreal winter with cold and dry northerly winds. In late April/early May, rainfall onsets in the central Indochina Peninsula, and in mid-June the rainy season arrives over East Asia with the formation of the Meiyu front along the Yangtze River valley, Changma in Korea and Baiu in Japan. In July, the monsoon advances up to North China, the Korean peninsula and central Japan. During boreal winter, strong north-westerlies manifest over north and north-east China, Korea and Japan, while strong north-easterlies arrive along the coast of East Asia. Further details on how EAsiaM is defined and used throughout the Report are provided in Annex V."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/157b9c41-85ce-40a7-95e7-e16a3e9ab25b","prefLabel":{"en":"North American monsoon (NAmerM)"},"definition":{"en":"The North American monsoon (NAmerM) is a regional-scale atmospheric circulation system with increases in summer precipitation over northwestern Mexico and southwest United States. The monsoonal characteristics of the region include a pronounced annual maximum of precipitation in boreal summer (June–July–August) accompanied by a surface low pressure system and an upper-level anticyclone, although seasonal reversal of the surface winds is primarily limited to the northern Gulf of California. Further details on how NAmerM is defined and used throughout the Report are provided in Annex V."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d60d85d0-fa7c-4bbf-9da0-01df18207d7f","prefLabel":{"en":"South American monsoon (SAmerM)"},"definition":{"en":"The South American monsoon (SAmerM) is a regional circulation characterized by inflow of low-level winds from the Atlantic to South America, including Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and northern Argentina, associated with the development of surface pressure gradients (and intense precipitation) during austral summer (December–January–February). During September–October–November, areas of intense convection migrate from northwestern South America to the south. Associated with this regime, an upper-tropospheric anticyclone (a.k.a. the Bolivian High) forms over the Altiplano region during the monsoon onset. The SAmerM then retreats during March–April–May with a northeastward migration of the convection. Further details on how SAmerM is defined and used throughout the Report are provided in Annex V."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4c5717db-02c1-469f-a602-3d818f04bb99","prefLabel":{"en":"South and South East Asian monsoon (SAsiaM)"},"definition":{"en":"The South and South East Asian monsoon (SAsiaM) is characterized by pronounced seasonal reversals of wind and precipitation. The SAsiaM region extends across vast geographical areas and several countries, including India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines. The SAsiaM starts in late May/early June and progresses towards the north-east, ending in late September/early October. During the core monsoon season, maxima of SAsiaM precipitation are located over the west coast, north-east and central north India, Myanmar and Bangladesh, whereas minima are located over north-west and south-eastern India, western Pakistan, and southeastern and northern Sri Lanka. Further details on how SAsiaM is defined and used throughout the Report are provided in Annex V."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dd75b161-da10-4dfd-96b7-87f5ab5f82ae","prefLabel":{"en":"West African monsoon (WAfriM)"},"definition":{"en":"The West African monsoon (WAfriM) is a seasonal reversal in wind and precipitation whose domain includes Benin, Burkina-Faso, northern Cameroon, Cape Verde, northern Central African Republic, Chad, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. The WAfriM is characterized by the northward progression from May to September of moist low-level south-westerlies from the Gulf of Guinea. In May and June, rainfall essentially remains along the Guinean coast with a maximum occurring near 5°N, followed by a sudden decrease of rainfall, marking the ‘short dry season‘ in the Guinean coast and the monsoon onset in the Sahel. Then rainfall continues to progress northward up to about 18–20°N, with a maximum near 12°N in late August/September, until it retreats starting from October towards the Guinean coast for a second maximum. Further details on how WAfriM is defined and used throughout the Report are provided in Annex V."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42bbad3f-f631-48d1-900c-8d9490140197","prefLabel":{"en":"Global stocktake"},"altLabel":{"en":["global stocktake process","unfccc global stocktake"]},"definition":{"en":"An assessment of collective progress towards achieving the Paris Agreement and the global goal on adaptation. It becomes critical for discussions about how climate change adaptation should be understood and measured (Benzie et al., 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0076ab5-2991-404e-9be7-780b2d5f2970","prefLabel":{"en":"Global warming"},"definition":{"en":"Global warming refers to the increase in global surface temperature relative to a baseline reference period, averaging over a period sufficient to remove interannual variations (e.g., 20 or 30 years). A common choice for the baseline is 1850–1900 (the earliest period of reliable observations with sufficient geographic coverage), with more modern baselines used depending upon the application."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a6c46de-4774-48b1-9e1e-04ac86bbd8f3","prefLabel":{"en":"Global warming potential (GWP)"},"definition":{"en":"An index measuring the radiative forcing following an emission of a unit mass of a given substance, accumulated over a chosen time horizon, relative to that of the reference substance, carbon dioxide (CO2). The GWP thus represents the combined effect of the differing times these substances remain in the atmosphere and their effectiveness in causing radiative forcing."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2c920a51-df15-478f-a414-45bf7a66172e","prefLabel":{"en":"Greenhouse gas emission metric"},"definition":{"en":"A simplified relationship used to quantify the effect of emitting a unit mass of a given greenhouse gas (GHG) on a specified key measure of climate change. A relative GHG emission metric expresses the effect from one gas relative to the effect of emitting a unit mass of a reference GHG on the same measure of climate change. There are multiple emission metrics, and the most appropriate metric depends on the application. GHG emission metrics may differ with respect to: (i) the key measure of climate change they consider; (ii) whether they consider climate outcomes for a specified point in time or integrated over a specified time horizon; (iii) the time horizon over which the metric is applied; (iv) whether they apply to a single emission pulse, emissions sustained over a period of time, or a combination of both; and (v) whether they consider the climate effect from an emission compared to the absence of that emission or compared to a reference emissions level or climate state.[Note:Most relative GHG emission metrics (such as the global warming potential (GWP), global temperature change potential (GTP), global damage potential, and GWP*), use carbon dioxide (CO2) as the reference gas. Emissions of non-CO2 gases, when expressed using such metrics, are often referred to as ‘carbon dioxide equivalent’ emissions. A metric that establishes equivalence regarding one key measure of the climate system response to emissions does not imply equivalence regarding other key measures. The choice of a metric, including its time horizon, should reflect the policy objectives for which the metric is applied.]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b0cac6ca-d8f4-494a-954a-ecfa954aa935","prefLabel":{"en":"Greenhouse gas neutrality"},"definition":{"en":"Condition in which metric-weighted anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with a subject are balanced by metric-weighted anthropogenic GHG removals. The subject can be an entity such as a country, an organisation, a district or a commodity, or an activity such as a service or an event. GHG neutrality is often assessed over the lifecycle, including indirect (‘scope 3’) emissions, but can also be limited to the emissions and removals, over a specified period, for which the subject has direct control, as determined by the relevant scheme. The quantification of GHG emissions and removals depends on the GHG emission metric chosen to compare emissions and removals of different gases, as well as the time horizon chosen for that metric[Note 1: Greenhouse gas neutrality and net zero greenhouse gas emissions are overlapping concepts. The concepts can be applied at global or sub-global scales (e.g., regional, national and sub-national). At a global scale, the terms greenhouse gas neutrality and net zero greenhouse gas emissions are equivalent. At sub-global scales, net zero GHG emissions is generally applied to emissions and removals under direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity, while GHG neutrality generally includes emissions and removals within and beyond the direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity. Accounting rules specified by GHG programmes or schemes can have a significant influence on the quantification of relevant emissions and removals.Note 2: Under the Paris Rulebook (Decision 18/CMA.1, annex, paragraph 37), parties have agreed to use GWP100 values from the IPCC AR5 or GWP100 values from a subsequent IPCC Assessment Report to report aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs. In addition, parties may use other metrics to report supplemental information on aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs.Note 3: In some cases, achieving greenhouse gas neutrality may rely on the supplementary use of offsets to balance emissions that remain after actions by the reporting entity are taken into account.]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/41184431-845a-4c45-8404-1d53c8b653f2","prefLabel":{"en":"Gross domestic product (GDP)"},"definition":{"en":"The sum of gross value added, at purchasers’ prices, by all resident and non-resident producers in the economy, plus any taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products in a country or a geographic region for a given period, normally one year. GDP is calculated without deducting for depreciation of fabricated assets or depletion and degradation of natural resources."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7f8d9ca6-184e-40b0-85e0-760791c7662f","prefLabel":{"en":"Guidance"},"altLabel":{"en":["guidance","guidance cues","‘guidance"]},"definition":{"en":"A structured explanation that provides a clear and easy to understand way for different users on how to navigate through a scenario or how to use particular tools or methods, such as frameworks and dashboards (adapted from Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/acc985d9-84e3-43cb-8652-a6acf4a7d0f5","prefLabel":{"en":"Halocarbons"},"definition":{"en":"A collective term for the group of partially halogenated organic species, which includes the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), halons, methyl chloride and methyl bromide. Many of the halocarbons have large global warming potentials. The chlorine and bromine-containing halocarbons are also involved in the depletion of the ozone layer."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/18785e0a-e448-4cd3-99e7-d316f055513d","prefLabel":{"en":"Hazard"},"definition":{"en":"The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event or trend that may cause loss of life, injury, or other health impacts, as well as damage and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods, service provision, ecosystems and environmental resources (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3154ddc4-e661-4bb8-97af-7084491793a0","prefLabel":{"en":"Biological hazards"},"definition":{"en":"Biological hazards are of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors, including pathogenic microorganisms, toxins and bioactive substances (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Examples: bacteria, viruses or parasites, as well as venomous wildlife and insects, poisonous plants and mosquitoes carrying disease-causing agents (Gill et al., 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc713306-66e3-46d0-985b-f240f45980ff","prefLabel":{"en":"Fisheries and Aquaculture"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb278c0c-8f5f-479f-9c1a-996937f30780","prefLabel":{"en":"Harmful Algal Blooms"},"altLabel":{"en":["HABs"]},"definition":{"en":"Harmful algal blooms result from noxious and/or toxic algae that cause direct and indirect negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems, coastal resources, and human health (Kudela et al., 2015).Kudela, R., E. Berdalet, S. Bernard, M. Burford, L. Fernand, S. Lu, S. Roy, G. Usup, P. Tester, R. Magnien, D. Anderson, A. Cembella, M. Chinain, G. Hallegraeff, B. Reguera, A. Zingone, H. Enevoldsen and E. Urban, 2015. Harmful Algal Blooms. A scientific summary for policy makers. Accessed 11 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are present in nearly all aquatic environments (freshwater, brackish, marine), as naturally occurring phenomena (Kudela et al., 2015). Many HABs are increasing in severity and frequency, and biogeographical range. Causes are complex, but in some cases can be attributed to climate change and human impacts, including eutrophication, habitat modification, and human-mediated introduction of exogenous species (Kudela et al., 2015). Photosynthetic algae support healthy aquatic ecosystems and form the base of the food web, fixing carbon and producing oxygen. Under certain circumstances, some species can form high-biomass and/or toxic proliferations of cells (or ‘blooms’), thereby causing harm to aquatic ecosystems, including plants and animals, and to humans via direct exposure to water-borne toxins or by toxic seafood consumption. Ecosystem damage by high-biomass blooms may include disruption of food webs, fish-killing by gill damage, or contribution to low oxygen ‘dead-zones’ after bloom degradation. Some HAB species also produce potent natural chemicals (toxins) that can persist in the water or enter the food web, leading to illness or death of aquatic animals and/or human seafood consumers (Kudela et al., 2015). Even non-toxic algal blooms can have devastating impacts when they lead to kills of fish and invertebrates by generating anoxic conditions. Some algal species, although non-toxic to humans, can produce exudates that cause damage to the delicate gill tissues of fish (such as the raphidophytes Chattonella, Heterosigma, and dinoflagellates Karenia, Karlodinium). Aquaculture stocks (caged fish, molluscs, crustaceans) are trapped and, thus, can suffer devastating mortalities, which could lead to economic and food losses, and may eventually became a food security issue (FAO and WHO, 2020). Of greatest concern to human society are algal species that produce potent neurotoxins that can find their way through shellfish and fish to human consumers, where they cause a variety of gastrointestinal and neurological illnesses (FAO, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/025ffeeb-8b2c-4974-a9e2-fe3b5542586d","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine Toxins"},"definition":{"en":"Marine toxins (biotoxins) are naturally occurring chemicals, mostly caused by certain types of toxic algae, but also by bacteria. These toxins can accumulate in fish and shellfish and present a human health hazard (WHO, no date). When people consume such contaminated aquatic products, depending on the toxins, they can evoke a variety of gastrointestinal and neurological illnesses (paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning and ciguatera poisoning).WHO, no date. Marine biotoxins. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 12 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Marine toxins are produced by algae or bacteria and are concentrated in contaminated fishery and aquaculture products. When people consume these contaminated products, depending on the toxin, the symptoms can be diarrheic, paralytic, amnesic, or neurologic, some of which result in high mortality and long-term morbidity (Sobel and Painter, 2005; WHO, no date). Routine clinical diagnostic tests are not available for these toxins; diagnosis is based on clinical presentation and a history of eating fishery and aquaculture products in the preceding 24 hours (Sobel and Painter, 2005). There is no antidote for any of the marine toxins, and supportive care is the mainstay of treatment. Paralytic shellfish poisoning, and puffer fish poisoning can cause death within hours of consuming the toxins and may require immediate intensive care (Sobel and Painter, 2005). A Joint FAO/IOC/WHO expert meeting classified the toxins into eight groups based on their chemical structure (FAO/WHO, 2016): the Azaspiracid (AZA) group, Brevetoxin group, Cyclic Imines group, Domoic Acid (DA) group, Okadaic Acid (OA) group, Pectenotoxin (PTX) group, Saxitoxin (STX) group, and Yessotoxin (YTX) group. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that they can also be classified by the type of poisoning they cause (FAO, 2004): Paralytic shellfish toxins causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP): PSP poisoning in humans is caused by ingestion of shellfish containing PSP toxins. These PSP toxins are accumulated by shellfish grazing on algae producing these toxins. Symptoms of human PSP intoxication vary from a slight tingling or numbness to complete respiratory paralysis. In fatal cases, respiratory paralysis occurs within 2 to 12 hours of consuming the PSP-contaminated food. PSP toxins are produced mainly by dinoflagellates belonging to the genus Alexandrium, which may occur in both in the tropical and temperate climatic zones. Shellfish grazing on these algae can accumulate the toxins but the shellfish itself is rather resistant to the harmful effects of these toxins. PSP is well documented throughout the Southern Hemisphere in South Africa, Australia, India, Thailand, Brunei Darussalam, Sabah (Malaysia), the Philippines and Papua New Guinea (FAO, 2004). Diarrhoeic shellfish toxins causing diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP). In humans, DSP poisoning is caused by the ingestion of contaminated bivalves such as mussels, scallops, oysters or clams. The fat-soluble DSP toxins accumulate in the fatty tissue of the bivalves. DSP symptoms include diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain starting 30 minutes to a few hours after ingestion and complete recovery occurs within three days. DSP toxins can be divided into different groups depending on chemical structure. The first group, acidic toxins, includes okadaic acid and its derivatives named dynophysistoxins. The second group, neutral toxins, consists of polyether-lactones of the pectenotoxin group. The third group includes a sulphated polyether and its derivatives the yessotoxins (FAO, 2004). Amnesic shellfish toxins causing amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP). In humans, ASP is also known as domoic acid poisoning (DAP) because amnesia is not always present. It was first recognised in 1987 on Prince Edward Island, Canada. At this time, ASP caused three deaths and 105 cases of acute human poisoning following the consumption of blue mussels. The symptoms included abdominal cramps, vomiting, disorientation and memory loss (amnesia). The causative toxin (the excitatory amino acid domoic acid or DA) was produced by the diatom species Pseudo-nitzschia pungens f. multiseries (Nitzschia pungens f. multiseries) (FAO, 2004). Neurotoxic shellfish toxins causing neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP). NSP is caused by polyether brevetoxins produced by the unarmoured dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve (also called Ptychodiscus breve, since 2000 called Karenia brevis). The brevetoxins are toxic to fish, marine mammals, birds and humans, but not to shellfish. Until 1992/1993, neurologic shellfish poisoning was considered to be endemic to the Gulf of Mexico and the east coast of Florida, where ‘red tides’ had been reported as early as 1844. An unusual feature of G. breve is the formation by wave action of toxic aerosols which can lead to asthma-like symptoms in humans. In 1987, a major Florida bloom event was dispersed by the Gulf Stream northward into North Carolina waters where it has since continued to be present. In early 1993, more than 180 human shellfish poisonings were reported from New Zealand caused by an organism similar to G. breve. Most likely, this was a member of the hidden plankton flora (previously present in low concentrations), which developed into bloom proportions triggered by unusual climatic conditions (higher than usual rainfall, lower than usual temperature) coincident with an El Niño event (FAO, 2004). Azaspiracid shellfish toxins causing azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP). In November 1995, at least eight people in the Netherlands became ill after eating mussels (Mytilus edulis) cultivated at Killary Harbour, Ireland. Although the symptoms resembled those of diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP), concentrations of the major DSP toxins were very low. The known organisms producing DSP toxins were not observed in water samples collected at that time. In addition, a slowly progressing paralysis was observed in the mouse assay using the mussel extracts. These neurotoxic symptoms were different from typical DSP toxicity. It was then that azaspiracid (formerly called Killary Toxin-3 or KT3) was identified and the new toxic syndrome was called azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) (FAO, 2004). Ciguatoxins causing ciguatera poisoning: Ciguatera poisoning (CP) has been known for centuries. It was reported in the West Indies by Peter Martyr de Anghera in 1511, in islands of the Indian Ocean by Harmansen in 1601, and in the various archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean by De Quiros in 1606. Endemic areas are mainly the tropical and subtropical Pacific and Indian Ocean insular regions and the tropical Caribbean, but continental reef areas are also affected. The name ciguatera was given by Don Antonio Parra in Cuba in 1787 to intoxication following ingestion of the ‘cigua’, the Spanish trivial name of a univalve mollusc, Turbo pica, reputed to cause indigestion. The term cigua was somehow transferred to an intoxication caused by the ingestion of coral reef fish species. The causative toxins, the ciguatoxins, accumulate through the food chain, from small herbivorous fish grazing on the coral reefs to organs of the bigger carnivorous fish that feed on them (FAO, 2004)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b053cd06-7594-45fd-98b0-8bff07ccc852","prefLabel":{"en":"Food Safety"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e6dfdbb0-4974-4d1c-8748-1b18c2353431","prefLabel":{"en":"Antimicrobial Resistance"},"definition":{"en":"Antimicrobial resistance is the ability of a microorganism to multiply or persist in the presence of an increased level of an antimicrobial agent relative to the susceptible counterpart of the same species (FAO, 2011).FAO, 2011. Guidelines for Risk Analysis of Foodborne Antimicrobial Resistance. CAC/GL 77-2011. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization (FAO). Accessed 26 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa) evolve to survive and/or proliferate in concentrations of antimicrobial that would otherwise be microbiocidal (kill) or microbiostatic (inhibit the growth) to the organism or other organisms of the same or similar species. This can occur naturally through adaption to the environment but has been exacerbated by inappropriate and excessive use of antimicrobial agents (FAO, 2016). Microorganisms in food are potential food safety hazards. The relationship between the use of antimicrobial agents in food production (terrestrial and aquatic food-producing animals and crop plants) and the emergence of resistant microorganisms in the food chain is a concern as food can become contaminated with antimicrobial resistant organisms and/or antimicrobial resistance genes. When humans ingest antimicrobial resistant microorganisms in food or water, some of these may cause illness, and in cases where antimicrobial treatment in needed this becomes a challenge. This has been the subject of numerous national and international consultations (FAO and WHO, 2018a). Data to support risk assessment and risk management, while improving, remains an important challenge in the context of antimicrobial resistance. For example, 118 countries reported quantitative data on antimicrobial use in animals in 2017, an increase from 89 reporting in 2015. However, few countries collect data on antimicrobial use in plant production. Also, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) there are few countries worldwide that have adequate surveillance across the food chain (WHO, 2015a). In summary antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, antimicrobial residues and antimicrobial resistance genes could be transmitted from animal, clinical, and environmental sources to foods, feeds of animals and plants. There are around 700,000 human deaths each year related to antimicrobial resistance (CDC, 2021). Notes: In some cases, the terms antibiotic resistance and antimicrobial resistance are used interchangeably which is incorrect. Antibiotic resistance has a narrower definition referring only to resistance to antibiotics which target bacteria while antimicrobial resistance relates to resistance or a broader range of microbes (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa) and to a broader range of agents (antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, antiprotozoals) (WHO, 2020a,b). Antimicrobial resistance should be differentiated from antimicrobial residues which are trace amounts of the chemical substances present in foods and in the environment after antimicrobial use or disposal. Antimicrobial residues pose a food safety risk and may contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance in the environment (CDC, 2021)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/67f64fc1-3097-4dc4-857f-a39212261891","prefLabel":{"en":"Foodborne Microbial Hazards (including human enteric virus and foodborne parasite)"},"definition":{"en":"Foodborne microbial hazards include (but are not limited to) pathogenic bacteria, viruses, algae, protozoa, fungi, parasites, prions, toxins and other harmful metabolites of microbial origin (FAO and WHO, 2007).A human enteric virus is a virus that replicates in the gastro-intestinal tract or in the liver and is excreted in faeces and/or vomitus from humans. It is transmitted mainly by the faecal-oral route and is infectious to humans (FAO and WHO, 2012).A foodborne parasite is any parasite that can be transmitted to humans by ingesting food (FAO and WHO, 2016).Foodborne microbial hazards include (but are not limited to) pathogenic bacteria, viruses, algae, protozoa, fungi, parasites, prions, toxins and other harmful metabolites of microbial origin (FAO and WHO, 2007).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Foodborne diseases caused by foodborne microbial hazards are an important cause of morbidity and mortality, and a significant impediment to socioeconomic development worldwide. The symptoms of foodborne diseases range from mild and self-limiting (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea) to debilitating and life-threatening (such as kidney and liver failure, brain and neural disorders, paralysis and potentially cancers), leading to long periods of absenteeism and premature death (WHO, 2015). Human enteric virus refers to viruses that are very small microorganisms, ranging from 0.02 to 0.4 mm in diameter, whereas bacteria generally range in size from 0.5 to 5 mm. In addition to size, other (structural and biological) properties of viruses may also vary greatly, both among viruses and between viruses and bacteria. In contrast to bacteria, which are free living, viruses use the host cells to replicate. Viruses are diverse; for example, the virus genome can be DNA or RNA, in double- or single-stranded form. The virus particle can vary from a relatively simple structure consisting of a non-enveloped genome with a single protein coat, as is the case for most foodborne viruses, to a complex structure consisting of a segmented genome, encapsulated in a complex protein capsid and enveloped by a membrane. The structure of the virus particle is linked to the environmental resistance of the virus, with the more complex structure particles being less resistant (FAO and WHO, 2008). Foodborne parasites are a major public health concern worldwide, particularly in areas with poor sanitary facilities and in populations that traditionally consume raw and undercooked food dishes. Infections may have prolonged, severe, and sometimes fatal outcomes, and result in considerable hardship in terms of food safety, food security, quality of life, and negative impacts on livelihood (FAO and WHO, 2016). Metrics and numeric limits The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that each year worldwide, unsafe food causes 600 million cases of foodborne diseases and 420,000 deaths. 30% of foodborne deaths occur among children under 5 years of age. The WHO estimated that 33 million years of healthy lives are lost due to eating unsafe food globally each year, and that this number is likely to be an underestimate (WHO, no date, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/765af8b0-970f-45f7-b7c6-25a16dde5fe6","prefLabel":{"en":"Levels of Contaminants in Food and Feed"},"definition":{"en":"A contaminant in food and feed is defined as any substance not intentionally added to food or feed for food-producing animals, which is present in such food or feed as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry, animal husbandry and veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or storage, or as a result of environmental contamination. Note: The term includes toxins, such as moulds, but does not include insect fragments, rodent hairs and other extraneous matter (FAO and WHO, 2019).FAO and WHO, 2019. Codex Alimentarius Commission – Procedural Manual twenty-seventh edition. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["With an estimated 600 million cases of foodborne illnesses annually, unsafe food is a threat to human health, food security, nutrition and economies globally. Ensuring food safety is a public health priority and an essential step to achieving food and nutrition security. Effective national food safety and quality control systems are key not only to safeguarding the health and well-being of people, but also to fostering economic development and improving livelihoods by promoting access to domestic, regional and international markets (FAO and WHO, 2020)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fdc93d5e-c5e8-46e3-a132-7a6f22d70128","prefLabel":{"en":"Human Animal Interaction"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/14ecd0c5-6b4d-43cf-9fa2-320990b8a57f","prefLabel":{"en":"Human-Wildlife Conflict"},"altLabel":{"en":["Animal-human interaction,","Human-wildlife interaction"]},"definition":{"en":"Human-wildlife conflict is defined as struggles that emerge when the presence or behaviour of wildlife poses an actual or perceived, direct and recurring threat to human interests or needs, leading to disagreements between groups of people and negative impacts on people and/or wildlife (IUCN SSC, 2020).IUCN SSC, 2020. What is Human-Wildlife Conflict? International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (SSC) Human-Wildlife Conflict Task Force. Accessed 15 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Humans coexist in a complex, interdependent relationship with the companion, production, and wild animals necessary for food, livelihoods, and well-being, as well as the environments required by both (WHO, no date). Human-wildlife conflict occurs when animals pose a direct and recurring threat to the livelihood or safety of people, often leading to the persecution of that species. In many regions these conflicts have intensified as a result of human population growth and changes in land use (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Human-wildlife conflict affects most large carnivores, as well as many other species groups including, but not limited to, elephants, pigs, deer, primates, sharks, seals, birds of prey, crocodiles, rhinos, and otters (IUCN SSC, 2020). Human-wildlife conflict is a serious global threat to sustainable development, food security, conservation, and health – a concern that is negatively affecting both people and wildlife and hindering the achievement of many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (IISD, 2021) and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (FAO, 2020a). In general, the consequences of human-wildlife conflict include destruction of crops, reduced farm productivity, competition for grazing lands and water, livestock predation, injury and death to farmers, damage to infrastructure and increased risk of disease transmission from wildlife to livestock. Human-wildlife conflict often triggers negative sentiments towards conservation, especially when protected areas are being established or expanded (FAO and UNEP, 2020). With specific reference to forests, a high density of large ungulates, for example deer, can cause severe damage to the forest and can threaten regeneration by trampling or browsing small trees, rubbing against trees or stripping tree bark (FAO, 2016). Forest damage caused by human-wildlife conflict leads to reduced productivity and forest regeneration, and can affect restoration efforts and have serious economic consequences (FAO, 2020b). In Africa, human-wildlife conflicts are not restricted to a particular geographical location and occur in all areas where wildlife and human populations co-exist and must make use of limited natural resources. Human-wildlife conflicts currently rank among the major threats to the survival of many endangered species as well as to the security and well-being of community livelihoods in Africa (FAO, 2020b). Human-wildlife conflict has also become a major challenge in many countries in the Asia- Pacific region, creating negative sentiments towards conservation, especially when new protected areas are established, or existing protected areas are expanded. Retaliation against the species blamed often ensues, leading to conflict about what should be done to remedy the situation (IUCN SSC, 2019) and may impact conservation efforts. The interface between humans, domestic animals, and wild animals can also be a source of disease, impacting local and global public health and the social and economic well-being of communities and the world population. Diseases transmissible from animals to humans through direct contact or though food, water, and the environment, are commonly referred to as ‘zoonoses’ (WHO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dbe895ac-88e6-4d44-8f16-6145d2989179","prefLabel":{"en":"Snake Envenomation"},"definition":{"en":"A snake envenomation is a potentially life-threatening disease caused by toxins in the bite of a venomous snake. Envenoming can also be caused by having venom sprayed into the eyes by certain species of snake that have the ability to spit venom as a defence measure (WHO, no date).WHO, no date. Snakebite Envenoming. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 5 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Although the exact number of snake bites is unknown, an estimated 5.4 million people are bitten each year with up to 2.7 million envenomings. Around 81,000 to 138,000 people die each year because of snake bites, and around three times as many amputations and other permanent disabilities are caused by snakebites annually. Bites by venomous snakes can cause paralysis that may prevent breathing, bleeding disorders that can lead to a fatal haemorrhage, irreversible kidney failure and tissue damage that can cause permanent disability and limb amputation. Agricultural workers and children are the most affected. Children often suffer more severe effects than adults, due to their smaller body mass (WHO, 2019). Snake venoms contain a mixture of toxins that are species-specific and tend to have a number of cellular targets in organisms exposed to them, typically prey animals. In humans and animals, snake venoms may precipitate multi-organ system failure caused by (depending on the species of snake, and the classes of toxins present in the venom) haemorrhage and prolonged disruption of haemostasis, neuromuscular paralysis, tissue necrosis, myolysis (muscle degeneration), cardiotoxicity, acute kidney injury, thrombosis, hypovolaemic shock and several other effects. When survived, snake bites may result in life-long disablement of humans (WHO, no date)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/94682bc2-2e2f-4205-afaa-08808e7b95d8","prefLabel":{"en":"Infectious Diseases (Animal)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/373387ec-4f8e-4696-9e63-7cb2b3bb4a7f","prefLabel":{"en":"African Swine Fever (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["ASFV"]},"definition":{"en":"African swine fever is a devastating haemorrhagic viral disease of pigs, affecting domestic and wild pigs of all ages and both sexes (FAO, OiE, and EC, 2019).FAO, OiE, and EC, 2019. African Swine Fever in Wild Boar Ecology and Biosecurity. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Organisation for Animal Health (OiE), European Commission (EC). Accessed 4 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["African Swine Fever (ASF) is a highly contagious, generalised disease of pigs caused by an Iridovirus of family Asfarviridae that exhibits varying virulence between strains and is very hardy to physical and chemical inactivation. The agent can remain viable for long periods in blood, faeces and tissues. It can also multiply in its vectors. In view of this, control of ASF is dependent on stamping-out policy and strict quarantine enforcement. It most commonly appears in the acute form as a haemorrhagic fever. Subacute and chronic forms of the disease also exist. Mortality is usually close to 100% and pigs of all ages are affected (FAO, 2019). The causative agent of ASF is a unique, enveloped, cytoplasmic, double-stranded DNA arbovirus, which is the sole member of the family Asfarviridae. Although it was generally considered that there is only one serotype of ASF virus, recent studies have reported the classification of 32 African Swine Fever virus (ASFV) isolates in eight different serogroups based on a hemadsorption inhibition assay (FAO, 2019). In the natural sylvatic cycle, the soft-bodied, eyeless Ornithodoros ticks (also known as tampans) are, together with African wild suids, the natural reservoir hosts of ASFV. They can transmit the virus through their bites. All members of the pig family (Suidae) are susceptible to infection, but clinical disease is only seen in domestic and feral pigs, as well as in the closely related European wild boar. Wild African suids are asymptomatic carriers of ASF and act as the reservoir of the virus in parts of Africa. These include warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus and P. aethiopicus), bushpigs (Potamochoerus porcus and P. larvatus) and giant forest hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni) (FAO, 2019). In domestic pigs, ASF is transmitted mainly through direct contact, via the oronasal route, through excretions from infected pigs, or from ingestion of pork or other contaminated products containing the virus (e.g., swill, waste, carcasses, etc.). Further transmission pathways are indirect contact through fomites or vector-borne transmission through bites from infected Ornithodoros soft ticks, where present. ASF is present in wild and/or domestic pigs in regions of Asia, Europe and Africa (OIE, 2018). People can transport the virus over large distances through contaminated meat and other sub-products such as skins, skulls, tusks or other hunting trophies (OIE, 2018; FAO, OIE and EC, 2019). The disease is not a zoonosis, i.e. it does not infect humans."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2cd353ec-fc1e-4e6e-9264-f40edb2f359d","prefLabel":{"en":"Classical Swine Fever (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Hog cholera"]},"definition":{"en":"Classical swine fever, also known as hog cholera, is a contagious viral disease of domestic and wild swine. It is caused by a virus of the genus Pestivirus of the family Flaviviridae (OiE, 2020).OiE, 2020. Classical Swine Fever (CSF). World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 18 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Classical Swine Fever (CSF) was first detected in the USA in the 19th century. An outbreak in the Netherlands in 1997 led to the destruction of 11 million pigs and cost USD 2.3 billion (OiE, 2020). Classical swine fever is a contagious viral disease of domestic and wild swine. It is caused by a virus of the genus Pestivirus of the family Flaviviridae, which is closely related to the viruses that cause bovine viral diarrhoea in cattle and border disease in sheep. There is only one serotype of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) (OiE, 2020). The most common method of transmission is through direct contact between healthy swine and those infected with CSFV. The virus is shed in saliva, nasal secretions, urine, and faeces. Contact with contaminated vehicles, pens, feed, or clothing may spread the disease. Animals that are chronic carriers of the disease (persistently infected) may show no clinical signs of illness but may shed the virus in their faeces. Offspring of infected sows can become infected in the uterus and once born can shed the virus for months (OiE, 2020). The disease has acute and chronic forms, and can range from severe, with high mortality, to mild or even unapparent. In the acute form of the disease, in all age groups, there is fever, huddling of sick animals, loss of appetite, dullness, weakness, conjunctivitis, constipation followed by diarrhoea, and an unsteady gait. Several days after the onset of clinical signs, the ears, abdomen and inner thighs may show a purple discoloration. Animals with acute disease die within one to two weeks. Severe cases of the disease appear very similar to African swine fever. With low virulence strains, the only expression may be poor reproductive performance and the birth of piglets with neurological defects such as congenital tremor (OiE, 2020). Classical swine fever is found in Central and South America, Europe, and Asia and parts of Africa. North America, Australia and New Zealand are currently free of the disease. In the 1990s large CSF outbreaks occurred in the Netherlands (1997), Germany (1993–2000), Belgium (1990, 1993, 1994) and Italy (1995, 1996, 1997). The World Organisation for Animal Health (OiE) standards for surveillance as applied have helped eradicate CSF from North America and much of Western Europe (OIE, 2020). Classical swine fever virus can survive in pork and processed pork products for months when meat is refrigerated and for years when it is frozen (OiE, 2020). Pigs can become infected by eating CSF-infected pork meat or products (OiE, 2020). It has been proven that in parts of Europe, the wild boar population may play a role in the epidemiology of the disease. The disease has been spread through legal and illegal transport of animals, and by feeding swill containing infective tissues to pigs (OiE, 2020). Humans are not affected by this virus. Swine are the only species known to be susceptible (OiE, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/67533069-3fa8-4af7-a9e8-9dbfd3ca82da","prefLabel":{"en":"Rinderpest (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Peste bovina (es)","Peste bovine (fr)","Чума крс (ru)","البقر الطاعون (ar)","牛瘟 (cn)"]},"definition":{"en":"Rinderpest was a disease caused by paramyxovirus in the genus Morbillivirus. It was most commonly observed in domestic cattle and buffaloes. The last confirmed outbreak of rinderpest was in 2001 and the disease was declared to have been eradicated globally in 2011 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Rinderpest was a highly contagious viral disease of animals that, throughout history, has resulted in the mortality of hundreds of millions of livestock and has caused significant disruption and damage to agricultural supply chains throughout the world. Rinderpest is the first animal disease eradicated worldwide. The last confirmed outbreak of rinderpest was in 2001. Rinderpest was declared as eradicated by 2011. The Rinderpest Secretariat (FAO and OIE joint activity) is engaged in safeguarding the global freedom, similar to what has been done for smallpox by the World Health Organization (OIE, 2019; FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Animal Production and Health: Maintaining Global Freedom from Rinderpest. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 4 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The world was officially declared free from rinderpest in 2011 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), making it the first animal disease to be eradicated in the history of humankind (Myers et al., 2018). Rinderpest, once the scourge of societies across Asia, Europe and Africa, is only the second infectious disease, after smallpox for humans, to have been eradicated globally thanks to decades of internationally concerted effort (OIE, no date a). Rinderpest was caused by paramyxovirus in the genus Morbillivirus. The disease was most commonly observed in domestic cattle and buffalos. Many species of wild and domestic cloven-hoofed animals (including sheep and goats) showed only mild symptoms of the disease when infected, but for cattle and buffalo, mortality rates can reach 100% in highly susceptible herds. In cattle, the most susceptible species, classical signs of the disease included fever, erosive lesions in the mouth, discharge from the nose and eyes, profuse diarrhoea and dehydration, often leading to death within 10 to 15 days. In other species rinderpest may show milder clinical signs (FAO, no date). Rinderpest is spread by effective contact between animals carrying the virus and susceptible animals. The virus was found in nasal secretions a few days before any clinical signs appear. As the disease progressed, the virus was found in most body fluids and either death ensued, or the animal recovered, developed immunity and cleared the virus from the body (FAO, no date). Asian domestic sway-backed pigs also suffer from and succumb to rinderpest. Infection is also confirmed in many wild even-toed ungulates belonging to the order Artiodactyla: African buffalo, eland, kudu, warthog, bongo, bushbuck, bush pig, chevrotain, dik-dik, duiker, giant forest hog, giraffe, sitatunga, wildebeest in Africa; and banteng, blackbuck, gaur, nilgai and sambar in Asia (FAO, 1996)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/09a440aa-d4ea-45b6-9c3a-5e2dcd250c14","prefLabel":{"en":"Infectious Diseases (Aquaculture)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2ef33467-e090-4d55-acc5-f61025d67792","prefLabel":{"en":"Oyster Disease Aquaculture"},"definition":{"en":"There are a number of causal agents recognised for oyster diseases. Examples of major oyster diseases and their causal protozoan agents are: bonamiosis (Bonamia exitiosa, B. ostreae); marteiliosis (Marteilia refringens); perkinsosis (Perkinsus marinus, P. olseni). These oyster diseases are notifiable OIE-listed diseases and occur worldwide (OIE, 2019).OIE, 2019. Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Aquatic food makes an important contribution to human health and development as an essential source of high-quality proteins, vitamins and micronutrients. Global aquaculture production is now a USD 157 billion industry, with USD 20.5 billion of this total representing the production of molluscs for food in the marine environment. The largest share of this represents culture of bivalves such as oysters, clams and scallops. Mollusc culture is a well-developed industry in many countries, notably in the northern hemisphere, such as the USA, Canada, Japan, Korea, France, Spain and the Netherlands (Carnegie et al., 2016). Oysters are subject to a number of diseases which can impact the local population and reduce harvests in a commercial setup. The agents causing oyster diseases do not pose any direct human health implications. However, oysters could potentially pose a health concern for humans in cases where they contain high levels of Vibrio spp. (V. parahaemolyticus, V. vulnificus, and choleragenic, V. cholera) and are consumed raw, or where the oysters are produced in an area containing biotoxin or heavy metal contamination (e.g., lead) (WHO, 2005). Bivalve molluscs are filter feeders; therefore they are susceptible to picking up and accumulating toxins, and chemical or bacteriological contaminants from their environment. By filtering a great quantity of water, they may bioaccumulate a high number of microorganisms in their tissues that can be considered infectious for humans and higher vertebrates (Zannella et al., 2017). The causative pathogens live in aquatic environments in both tropical and temperate zones. High temperatures and salinities favour the proliferation of some of the pathogens. Epizootic diseases have been shown to cause catastrophic mortality among marine bivalves, which can severely affect fisheries and aquaculture activities worldwide. Some of these diseases have become a serious constraint on the development and sustainability of shellfish farming and fishing. Currently, the main cause of epizootic outbreaks is thought to be the transfer of infectious agents through the transport of live shellfish. Severe outbreaks have resulted in significant economic destruction, with some outbreaks essentially causing the collapse of entire industries. For instance, epizootics of protistan parasites Haplosporidium nelsoni in the 1950s to 1960s and Perkinsus marinus in the 1980s to 1990s devastated the planting industry for oyster Crassostrea virginica in the US mid-Atlantic (Carnegie et al., 2016). Illness in humans is linked to the consumption of raw oysters. Metrics and numeric limits None identified."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/08a8a065-2b1e-4593-b5d2-f12210770cd2","prefLabel":{"en":"Shrimp disease (bacterial) - Acute Hepatic"},"altLabel":{"en":["Early mortality syndrome (EMS)","Hepatopancreas (HP)","Photorhabdus insect-related (Pir)"]},"definition":{"en":"Shrimp acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) is caused by virulent strains of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and related Vibrio species. AHPND-associated mortalities occur early in the production cycle, usually within 30 to 35 days of stocking, and because of this AHPND was initially referred to as early mortality syndrome (OIE, 2019).OIE, 2019. Aquatic Animal Health Code: Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease. Chapter 9.1. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 10 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) is a bacterial disease that has caused mass mortalities in farmed populations of whiteleg shrimp and giant tiger prawn. The causative agent is virulent strains of Vibrio parahemolyticus and four other Vibrio species (V. harvey, V. campbellii, V. owendii, V. punensis). AHPND was listed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) as a notifiable disease in 2016 (OIE, 2019a). AHPND first appeared in the People’s Republic of China around 2010 and was called ‘covert mortality disease’. It has since been reported from Viet Nam (2010), Malaysia (2011), Thailand (2012), Mexico (2013), the Philippines (2014), Bangladesh (2017), the USA (2017), Taiwan province of China (2018), South Korea (2019) and the Okinawa Prefecture of Japan (2020). It is also suspected to be present in, but unreported, from other countries in Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean (OIE, 2019a). The causative agents, discovered in 2013, are isolates of V. parahaemolyticus and related Vibrio species that carry a 69-73 kbp plasmid (pVA1) containing pirABvp genes that produce proteins (12.7 kDa and 50.1 kDa) that act together to cause AHPND. The pirABvp toxin genes in these Vibrio species are similar to the pirAB toxin genes of Photorhabdus spp., which are gram-negative, luminescent, rod-shaped bacteria in the Family Enterobacteriaceae (FAO, 2018). The PirAB has an insecticidal property; its toxicity results in severe swelling and shedding of the midgut epithelium in larvae of the moth Plutella xylostella. Clinical signs and mortality of AHPND can start as early as 10 days post-stocking. Major clinical signs involve shrimp hepatopancreas: significant atrophy, loss of colour, and the presence of black spots or streaks due to melanised tubules. Additional clinical signs include soft shells and empty stomach or near-empty midgut (OIE, 2019a)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9e4d33d3-9df1-45c0-a177-8132612a9d1c","prefLabel":{"en":"Infectious Diseases (Plant)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/87eb6646-7d30-4393-9e1e-5dfd183d35ce","prefLabel":{"en":"Bacterial Plant Disease"},"definition":{"en":"A bacterial plant disease is the occurrence of plant diseases caused by bacterial microorganisms over large areas with significant impacts on crop and forest productivity or natural habitat (adapted from FAO, 2018).FAO, 2018. 2017: The Impact of Disasters and Crises on Agriculture and Food Security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 31 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A bacterium is a single-celled, microscopic organism that lacks a nucleus. Some bacteria cause animal or plant diseases (University of California, 2019). Plant diseases caused by bacterial pathogens place major constraints on crop and forest production and cause significant annual losses on a global scale (Sundin et al., 2016). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that each year, plant diseases cost the global economy around USD 220 billion (FAO, 2019). Numerous bacterial diseases affect crop production in many countries and regions. These include fire blight in fruit trees, bacterial wilt in banana, bacterial blight in rice and crown gall in many perennial plants. In some cases, the epidemics caused by bacteria can cause significant economic burden on crops (FAO, 2018). For example, Xylella fastidiosa is a bacterial disease with many subspecies that in recent years has managed to establish itself in areas along the Mediterranean coast, where it is attacking economically important crops such as olive, citrus, stone fruits, grapevines and forest trees such as oak (FAO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7469088b-37a2-4e24-85b5-c9a7309bd426","prefLabel":{"en":"Fungal Plant Disease"},"definition":{"en":"Fungal plant disease is the occurrence of plant diseases caused by fungal agents over large areas with significant impact on crop productivity or natural habitats (Arneson, 2001; Moore et al., 2019).Arneson, P.A., 2001. Plant Disease Epidemiology: Temporal Aspects. The Plant Health Instructor. (Revised 2011). Accessed 20 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Fungi are multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms classified as a separate kingdom, as are animalia and plantae. They include many important species causing plant diseases of local or global significance such as blights, wilts, rots, mildews, canker, smuts or rusts. The fungus structure normally consists of filamentous strands called mycelium and reproduces through spores (CABI, no date). The list of fungal diseases includes many types: anthracnose; black knot; blight including chestnut blight and late blight; canker; clubroot; damping-off; Dutch elm disease; ergot; Fusarium wilt; leaf blister; mildew including downy mildew and powdery mildew; oak wilt; rot including basal rot, grey mould rot and heart rot; rust including wheat, soybean, pine blister, coffee and cedar-apple rust; scab including apple scab; smut including loose smut and corn smut; snow mould; sooty mould; and Verticillium wilt (Encyclopaedia Britannica, no date). Collectively, fungi and fungal-like organisms (FLOs) cause plant (forest) diseases with over 8000 species shown to cause disease. Some of the world’s great famines and periods of human suffering can be blamed on plant disease-causing fungi and FLOs (Williams et al., 2017). Numerous fungal disease epidemics have affected crop production and forests in many countries and regions in world history. These include epidemics caused by potato blight, wheat rust diseases, chestnut blight, rice blast and banana Fusarium wilt. In addition to being agents of pre-harvest and post-harvest diseases and rots, some fungi can produce highly toxic, hallucinogenic and carcinogenic chemicals that have not only affected the lives of millions historically but also continue to cause problems today. In 2006, dozens of dogs perished from food tainted with aflatoxin, a chemical produced by several Aspergillus species. These fungi can grow on many plants such as corn and produce toxins on the grain that not only affect the liver but is also one of the most carcinogenic substances known (Williams et al., 2017). Some fungi have beneficial roles in soil, but many are the major causal agents of plant diseases both during growth and in post-harvest processing. A wide range of fungicides are used to control fungi and to avoid production losses (FAO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bcaa4de0-da7b-4982-8683-44571e744af5","prefLabel":{"en":"Viral, Mycoplasma and Viroid Plant Disease"},"altLabel":{"en":["Mycoplasmas are often referred to as mycoplasma-like organisms (MLOs),","Phytoplasmas"]},"definition":{"en":"Viral, mycoplasma and viroid plant disease epidemics are the occurrence of plant diseases caused by viruses, mycoplasma (syn. phytoplasma, mycoplasma-like organisms ) and viroids over large areas with significant impact on crop productivity or natural habitats (adapted from Nakashima and Murata, 1993; Hammond and Owens, 2006; FAO and IPPC, 2016; Rubio et al., 2020).FAO and IPPC, 2016. ISPM 27 Diagnostic protocols for regulated pests. DP 12: Phytoplasmas. Accessed 4 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The terminology ‘outbreak’ is used if the disease occurs in a limited location or area, and ‘pandemic’ if it occurs in multiple regions and at world scale. Plant diseases are a major concern globally, given their potential economic impact on populations that rely on income from selling crops. The impact in places where there is increased food scarcity is of particular concern, as it exacerbates the insecurity and poverty felt by populations affected by these diseases. Viruses, viroids and mycoplasmas (MLOs) are among the main disease agents causing significant crop losses, depending on crops and local conditions. Mycoplasma lack cell wall(s) bounded by unit membrane(s) and have cytoplasm ribosomes and strands of nuclear material (Team Agri, 2017). Mycoplasmas are transmitted through insects that feed on plants, including plant hoppers and psyllids (Team Agri, 2017). Plant viruses are small microorganisms without cell walls, containing nucleic acids surrounded by protein coats and replicating only inside living cells (Gergerich and Dolja, 2006). Mycoplasmas are bacteria lacking cell walls and being categorised under the genus Mycoplasma. They are highly resistant to antibiotics and can be saprophytic or parasitic to plants (Britannica, 2019). Viroids are microorganisms that consist of a small circular RNA molecule, and are smaller than viruses and capable of causing certain plant diseases (Britannica, 2020). The occurrence of mycoplasma in plants is a particularly difficult hazard to address, since they are ‘the perfect parasite’ and adapt to their host in a way that serves all their nutritional needs (Cleanroom Technology, 2008). While mycoplasma generally do little harm, in the right circumstances they can provoke serious responses from their host causing illness and death in plants (Cleanroom Technology, 2008). Mycoplasmas – and associated wall-less prokaryotes – first came into the global scientific consciousness in the 1960s when Japanese workers noted an increasing prevalence of these organisms in the plants they were working with (Arora and Sinha, 1988). Since then, the association of mycoplasma and other plant virals/viroids with negative agricultural outcomes has shot up, with 100 diseases now being associated with these vectors (Arora and Sinha, 1988)."]}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a8b34fb2-6d75-4281-a527-f1764e3bb3f2","prefLabel":{"en":"Cascading hazards"},"altLabel":{"en":["Concatenated hazards"]},"definition":{"en":"Hazards that are related in a systemic causal relationship and expressed in a sequence of secondary events in natural and human systems that lead to physical, social or economic disruption, and where the resulting impact is significantly larger than under a single hazard event (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Cascading hazards have a relationship to cascading impacts, which refer to the social, economic and political consequences related to the hazards themselves. Cascading impacts are sometimes referred to as a \"Domino effect\".\nCascading hazards are factored into multi-hazard risk assessment.\n \nThe impacts of cascading hazards are conditioned by the variable vulnerabilities of systems and their components. They are complex and multi-dimensional and are associated more with the magnitude of vulnerability than with that of the hazard (modified from Pescaroli & Alexander, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17bb4e8f-1a97-4343-95a9-d506b8a7c832","prefLabel":{"en":"Environmental degradation"},"definition":{"en":"The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs. Degradation of the environment can alter the frequency and intensity of natural hazards and increase the vulnerability of communities (PreventionWeb, n.d., a. in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4aa6cdf9-df95-45b5-a871-d5e41f789a95","prefLabel":{"en":"Acid Rain"},"definition":{"en":"Acid rain is rain which in the course of its history has combined with chemical elements or pollutants in the atmosphere and reaches the Earth’s surface as a weak acid solution (WMO/UNESCO, 2012).WMO/UNESCO, 2012. International Glossary of Hydrology. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) / United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Accessed 15 November 2019
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Acids form when certain atmospheric gases (primarily carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides) come into contact with water in the atmosphere or on the ground and are chemically converted to acidic substances. Oxidants play a major role in several of these acid-forming processes. Carbon dioxide dissolved in rain is converted to a weak acid (carbonic acid). Other gases, primarily oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, are converted to strong acids (sulphuric and nitric acids). Rain is naturally slightly acidic owing to carbon dioxide, natural emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides, and to certain organic acids, however, emissions from human activities can make it much more acidic. Occasional pH readings of well below 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) have been reported in industrialised areas (NASA, 2014). The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes and from biological processes that occur on land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The effects of acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe (Pawar, no date). The main human sources are industrial and power-generating plants, and transportation vehicles. Since the industrial revolution, emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased. Industrial and energy-generating facilities that burn fossil fuels, primarily coal, are the principal sources of increased sulphur oxide emissions (NASA, 2019). Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower the pH of a substance (below 7.0), the more acidic it is. The higher the pH of a substance (above 7.0), the more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; while the pH of acid rain is typically between 4.2 and 4.4 (US EPA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1f863f4c-20f7-4fa9-b5e3-e06cdbf049f4","prefLabel":{"en":"Air pollution"},"altLabel":{"en":["Indoor air pollution","Ambient air pollution","Contamination","Fugitive emissions","Outdoor air pollution","Point source emissions","Poisoning","Poor air quality","Smog"]},"definition":{"en":"Polluted air is air containing dust, smoke, micro-organisms or gases different from those from which it would normally be composed (WMO, 1992).Alternative definition: Polluted air is air which contains gases and particles emitted to the atmosphere by a variety of human activities and natural sources, or formed in the atmosphere, that at critical levels have harmful effects on human health, animals, plants and ecosystems, or reduce visibility and corrode materials, buildings and cultural heritage sites (UNEP, no date).Polluted air is air containing dust, smoke, micro-organisms or gases different from those from which it would normally be composed (WMO, 1992).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Around 3 billion people still cook using solid fuels (such as wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal, dung) and kerosene in open fires and inefficient stoves. Most of these people are poor and live in low- and middle-income countries. These cooking practices are inefficient and use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household air pollution with a range of health-damaging pollutants, including small soot particles that penetrate deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable levels for fine particles. Exposure is particularly high among women and young children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth (WHO, 2018a). Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.8 million people per year to die prematurely from illness attributable to the household air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels and kerosene for cooking. Among these 3.8 million deaths: 27% are due to pneumonia; 18% from stroke; 27% from ischaemic heart disease; 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); and 8% from lung cancer (WHO, 2018a).","Air pollution is caused by gases and particles emitted to the atmosphere by a variety of human activities, such as the inefficient combustion of fuels, agriculture, and farming. There are also natural sources contributing to air pollution, including particles of soil dust and salt in sea spray (UNEP, no date). Air pollutants can be emitted directly from a source (i.e., primary pollutants) or can form from chemical reactions in the atmosphere (i.e., secondary pollutants). When concentrations of these substances reach critical levels in the air, they harm humans, animals, plants and ecosystems, and reduce visibility and corrode materials, buildings and cultural heritage sites (UNEP, no date). The main atmospheric pollutants affecting human health are particulate matter, ground-level ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (US EPA, 2020a,b,c). The fine particles that damage human health are known as PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres), which can penetrate deep into the lungs and pass into the bloodstream, affecting different organs and bodily functions. These particles can either be emitted directly or formed in the atmosphere from several different emitted pollutants (e.g., ammonia [NH3] and volatile organic compounds [VOCs]) (Air Pollution Information System, 2016; US EPA, 2020d; UNEP, no date). Ground-level ozone is an important secondary pollutant. It is a potent lung irritant and stunts growth in plants. It also oxidises surfaces with which it comes into contact, degrading the materials from which they are made. Ozone is also a powerful greenhouse gas. Tropospheric ozone is different to ozone in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), which protects us from ultraviolet light from the sun (UNEP, no date). Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are a group of air pollutants, comprising nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen monoxide (NO). Nitrogen dioxide is the most harmful of these compounds and is generated from human-driven activities. It impacts human health, reduces atmospheric visibility, and can play a significant role in climate change, at high concentrations. It is also a critical precursor to the formation of ground-level ozone (UNEP, no date). Particulate matter (both the aerosol that is directly emitted to the atmosphere and the secondary aerosol that is formed in the atmosphere) has a wide range of negative impacts, which depend on the chemical composition of the particles (UNEP, no date). Black carbon, which is a carbon particle produced as a result of partial combustion of hydrocarbons that contributes to air pollution, has strong negative impacts on health and contributes to climate warming (No More Planet, 2021). Aerosol has negative impacts on biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems (especially sulphur- and nitrogen-containing aerosol), and in high concentrations impacts visibility and has a soiling effects on surfaces (UNEP, no date).","Ambient (outdoor) air pollution is a major cause of death and disease globally. Long-term exposure to air pollution (over years or lifetimes) reduces life expectancy, mainly due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and lung cancer. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that ambient air pollution caused 4.2 million premature deaths globally in 2016, of which 58% were due to ischaemic heart disease and strokes, 18% to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute lower respiratory infections respectively, and 6% to lung cancer (WHO, 2018). Short-term exposure (over hours or days) to elevated levels of air pollution can also cause a range of health impacts, including effects on lung function, exacerbation of asthma, increases in respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions and mortality. Emerging evidence suggests that air pollution may also affect the brain with possible links to dementia and cognitive decline and may also have an effect on early life, such as low birth weight. Ambient air pollution contains a range of pollutants (particles and gases) from a variety of sources, both natural and man-made (e.g., transport, industry, agriculture). Pollutants with the strongest evidence for public health concern, include particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) (WHO, 2020). ‘Particulate matter’ is a generic term used to describe a complex mixture of solid and liquid particles of varying size, shape, and composition. Some particles are emitted directly (primary PM); others are formed in the atmosphere through complex chemical reactions (secondary PM). The composition of PM varies greatly and depends on many factors, such as geographic location, emission sources and weather. The size of particles and the duration of exposure are key determinants of potential adverse health effects. Particles larger than 10 μm are mainly deposited in the nose or throat, whereas particles smaller than 10 μm pose the greatest risk because they can be drawn deeper into the lung. The health risks associated with PM of less than 10 and 2.5 microns in diameter (PM10 and PM2.5, respectively) are especially well documented. The strongest evidence for effects on health is associated with fine particles (PM2.5) (WHO, 2018; PHE, 2019). Although air pollution can be harmful to everyone, some people are more affected because they live in a polluted area, are exposed to higher levels of air pollution in their daily lives, or are more susceptible to health problems caused by air pollution. The most vulnerable face all of these disadvantages. Groups more affected by air pollution include older people, children, individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular or respiratory disease, pregnant women, communities in areas of higher air pollution and low-income communities (PHE, 2018).","Our food, air and water expose us to a complex mixture of chemicals and materials (UNEP, no date a). These chemicals have a wide range of effects on health. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 23% of all deaths worldwide, amounting to 12.6 million people, were due to environmental causes; with 90% occurring in low- to middle-income countries (UNEP, 2021). In the same year, the burden of disease from environmental factors related directly to pollution in terms of death, illness and disability was estimated at 345 million Disability Adjusted Life Years (UNEP, no date a). More recently, a study indicated that pollution is currently the largest environmental cause of disease and death, responsible for an estimated 9 million premature deaths globally in 2015 (Landrigan et al., 2017). With world population growing, the numbers of vulnerable groups exposed to pollutants will increase unless urgent pollution abatement policies are implemented, and actions taken at the local level (UNEP, no date a). Pollution can have a disproportionate and negative effect on the poor, the disadvantaged and the vulnerable. Pollution constitutes a significant impediment to achieving health, well-being, prosperity and the sustainable development goal of ‘leaving no one behind’ (UNEP, no date a). There is a critical need for system-wide transformations to prevent, reduce and control pollution, toward greater resource efficiency and equity, circularity and sustainable consumption and production, and improved ecosystem resilience to support cleaner and more sustainable development (UNEP, no date a).","Point source air pollution can be natural or man-made. A human generated point source of air pollution is one that emits a significant amount of an air pollutant from a fixed location such as an explosion, pollutants from a chimney stack or a tyre fire. Examples of point sources include power stations, steel works, foundries, incinerators, wood and pulp processors, paper mills, refineries and chemical production (Kibble and Harrison, 2005; Dunne et al., 2014). Point sources of air pollution from naturally occurring sources include smoke from wildfires, ash from volcanic eruptions and sand particles from deserts lifted and transported in the wind across cities and continents. Many people, particularly those in poorer populations or with pre-existing vulnerabilities, live near point sources of air pollution such as industrial sites and waste disposal operations. Point sources frequently generate speculation regarding potential association with disease clusters such as cancer, among those living in close proximity to the source location. Suspected disease clusters tend to generate significant public concern and media interest. However, there are currently limited epidemiological methods to enable effective detailed investigations into the impact of point-source air pollution and causal links with the disease of interest in identified clusters. There is a particular challenge with respect to obtaining reliable and accurate population exposure data at a very local level (WHO, no date). In many cases, the key question is whether releases from a point source result in a significant increase in exposure or whether other sources (background exposure) give rise to the dominant exposure (Kibble and Harrison, 2005). Detailed investigation of these differences requires high spatio-temporal resolution air quality data alongside incidence data obtained from accurate health information systems, such as disease registers or via case control studies."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb7030c3-e25c-4d6d-852d-ef81a98f9f14","prefLabel":{"en":"Household Air Pollution"},"altLabel":{"en":["Indoor air pollution"]},"definition":{"en":"Household air pollution is pollution primarily resulting from the incomplete combustion of solid fuels (e.g. wood, dung, charcoal, coal, kerosene), resulting in the emission of potentially toxic pollutants, including particles of varying sizes, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide, volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (e.g. formaldehyde and benzo[a]pyrene), methylene chloride and dioxins. It is one of the leading environmental risk factors for disease and premature death and is generated by the use of inefficient and polluting fuels and technologies in and around homes. \n\nReferences WHO, 2018. Household air pollution and health. World Health Organization (WHO). www.who.int/en/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health Accessed 21 January 2025. \n\nNaeher, L.P., Brauer, M., Lipsett, M., Zelikoff, J.T., Simpson, C.D., Koenig, J.Q., & Smith, K.R., 2007. Woodsmoke health effects: a review. Inhalation toxicology, 19(1), 67-106. https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370600985875 Accessed 21 January 2025."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Around 3 billion people still cook using solid fuels (such as wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal, dung) and kerosene in open fires and inefficient stoves. Most of these people are poor and live in low- and middle-income countries. These cooking practices are inefficient and use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household air pollution with a range of health-damaging pollutants, including small soot particles that penetrate deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable levels for fine particles. Exposure is particularly high among women and young children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth (WHO, 2018a). Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.8 million people per year to die prematurely from illness attributable to the household air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels and kerosene for cooking. Among these 3.8 million deaths: 27% are due to pneumonia; 18% from stroke; 27% from ischaemic heart disease; 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); and 8% from lung cancer (WHO, 2018a)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c9257a18-83ae-4f22-b7c2-463a99485b59","prefLabel":{"en":"Biodiversity Loss"},"definition":{"en":"Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction of any aspect of biological diversity (i.e., diversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels) in a particular area through death (including extinction), destruction or manual removal; it can refer to many scales, from global extinctions to population extinctions, resulting in decreased total diversity at the same scale (IPBES, no date).IPBES, no date. Glossary: Biodiversity loss. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Accessed 20 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Human actions currently threaten more species with global extinction than ever before. An average of around 25% of species in assessed animal and plant groups are threatened, suggesting that around 1 million species already face extinction, many within decades, unless action is taken to reduce the intensity of drivers of biodiversity loss. Without such action, there will be a further acceleration in the global rate of species extinction, which is already at least tens to hundreds of times higher than it has averaged over the past 10 million years (IPBES, 2019:11-12)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/937dff7b-b81b-44fe-b7bf-4dfd92a43471","prefLabel":{"en":"Black Carbon (Brown Clouds)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Brown clouds","Soot"]},"definition":{"en":"Black carbon refers to the absorbing components of soot, often defined using elemental carbon and some condensed organics. Black carbon is an important part of the combustion product commonly referred to as soot. Black carbon in indoor environments is largely due to cooking with biofuels such as wood, dung and crop residue. Outdoors, it is due to fossil fuel combustion (diesel and coal), open biomass burning (associated with deforestation and crop residue burning), and cooking with biofuels (Ramanathan and Carmichael, 2008).Ramanathan, V. and G. Carmichael, 2008. Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon. Nature Geoscience, 1:221-227.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Black carbon is the sooty black material emitted from gas and diesel engines, coal-fired power plants, and other sources that burn fossil fuel. It comprises a significant proportion of atmospheric particulate matter or PM, which is an air pollutant (US EPA, 2019). Elevated black carbon concentrations in areas with high solar radiation are a major contributor to the so-called ‘brown clouds’ covering large regions, for instance in Asia. Brown clouds have led to dimming of the Earth’s surface, warming of the atmosphere and perturbation of the hydrological cycle, possibly affecting the monsoon (WMO, 2009). Black carbon is the product of incomplete combustion of fuels and can be analysed by means of different methodologies. When its light-absorbing properties are measured, soot is referred to as black carbon. When its concentration is measured by thermal-optical techniques, soot is known as elemental carbon (Popovicheva et al., 2010). Despite intensive efforts in recent decades, no widely accepted standard measurement method exists for determining black carbon or light-absorbing carbon. Real-time black carbon measurements can be performed using optical methods, which measure the absorption of light through a filter collecting airborne particles (Ahmed et al., 2010)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f3ad9b19-c970-410b-8435-7e1456d8679b","prefLabel":{"en":"Compressive Soils"},"altLabel":{"en":["Compaction,","Consolidation,","Land degradation,","Peat erosion","Poaching,","Settlement,"]},"definition":{"en":"Compressible soils include both compressive and collapsible soils. Compressive soils are soils that are prone to volumetric change when subject to mechanical loading (USDA, 1990:30). Collapsible soils are metastable in that they are prone to volumetric change (collapse) on wetting and loading (Rogers, 1995).Rogers, C.D.F., 1995. Types and distribution of collapsible soils. In: Derbyshire, E., T. Dijkstra and I.J. Smalley (eds), Genesis and Properties of Collapsible Soils. NATO ASI Series C, vol 468. Springer. Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Volume change when a soil is subject to load, results from changes in pore volume, initially as a result of the loss of air and water from the voids and then as a consequence of more ordered grain packing. Organic matter in the soil may be highly compressible; peat soils being particularly susceptible to consolidation. Consolidation is the gradual reduction in soil volume resulting from an increase in compressive stress. The resulting increase in density is compaction (USDA, 1990). Consolidation is the gradual reduction in soil volume resulting from an increase in compressive stress. It consists of initial consolidation, which is a comparatively sudden reduction in volume resulting from the expulsion and compression of gas; primary consolidation, which results principally from a squeezing out of water and is accompanied by a transfer of load from the soil water to the soil solids; and secondary consolidation, resulting principally from the adjustment of the internal structure of the soil mass after initial consolidation. Settlement is the displacement of a structure due to the compression and deformation of the underlying soil. Compaction is the densification of a soil by means of mechanical manipulation (USDA, 1990). Collapsible soils differ from compressible soils in that they are low density soils with a structure that collapses upon wetting. They may have considerable strength when dry or moist. They lose strength and undergo sudden compression when they are saturated. Some will collapse under their own weight when saturated; others, only when loaded (USDA, 1990). Compaction reduces the volume of void available for water, potentially affecting water infiltration into soil, crop root moisture uptake and penetration, and consequential crop yield. Soil compaction can lead to surface ponding of water and water logging, leading to chemical deterioration in soil quality. The potential for increased surface water run-off can lead to soil erosion (USDA, 1990). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils estimate that 33% of land is moderately to highly degraded due to the erosion, salinisation, compaction, acidification and chemical pollution of soils (FAO and ITPS, 2015). They noted that compaction-related soil degradation is increasing in Asia, Latin America and the Near East and North Africa; it is variable in Europe and Eurasia, the SW Pacific and North America (FAO and ITPS, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e5a30a45-e9e1-4632-8ff8-e0fc05419e2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Coral bleaching"},"definition":{"en":"Corals are subject to ‘bleaching’ when the seawater temperature is too high: they lose the symbiotic algae that give coral its colour and part of its nutrients. Severe, prolonged or repeated bleaching can lead to the death of coral colonies (United Nations, 2017).United Nations, 2017. The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment I. Cambridge University Press. Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Coral bleaching was a relatively unknown phenomenon until the early 1980s, when a series of local bleaching events occurred, principally in the eastern tropical Pacific and Wider Caribbean regions. Severe, prolonged or repeated bleaching can lead to the death of coral colonies. An increase of only 1°C to 2°C above the normal local seasonal maximum can induce bleaching. Although most coral species are susceptible to bleaching, their thermal tolerance varies. Many heat-stressed or bleached corals subsequently die from coral diseases (United Nations, 2017). Increasingly frequent severe coral bleaching is among the greatest threats to coral reefs posed by climate change. Global climate models project great spatial variation in the timing of annual severe bleaching conditions; a point at which reefs are certain to change and recovery will be limited (UNEP, 2017). Warmer water temperatures can result in coral bleaching. When water is too warm, corals will expel the algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white. This is called coral bleaching. When a coral bleaches, it is not dead. Corals can survive a bleaching event, but they are under more stress and are subject to mortality (NOAA, no date a). In 2005, the USA lost half of its coral reefs in the Caribbean in one year due to a massive bleaching event. The warm waters centred around the northern Antilles near the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico and extended southward. Comparison of satellite data from the previous 20 years confirmed that thermal stress from the 2005 event was greater than the previous 20 years combined (NOAA, no date a). There is great spatial variation in the timing of annual severe bleaching conditions; a point at which reefs are certain to change and recovery will be limited. The onset of annual severe coral bleaching is defined as the annual exceedance of more than eight degree-heating weeks accumulating during any three-month period. With more than eight weeks with an extra degree of heat it is possible to have confidence that thermal stress will be enough for bleaching to occur (van Hooidonk et al., 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b6a353d3-37cc-4c46-b144-0995fc4864e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Deforestation"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Deforestation is the conversion of forest to other land use independently of whether human-induced or not (FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Terms and Definitions FRA 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 188. Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has monitored the world’s forests at 5 to 10 year intervals since 1946. The recent Global Forest Resources Assessments have been produced every five years in an attempt to provide a consistent approach to describing the world’s forests and how they are changing (FAO, 2020a). Deforestation includes the permanent reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold. It also includes areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs, mining and urban areas. The term specifically excludes areas where the trees have been removed as a result of harvesting or logging, and where the forest is expected to regenerate naturally or with the aid of silvicultural measures. The term also includes areas where, for example, the impact of disturbance, over-utilisation or changing environmental conditions affects the forest to an extent that it cannot sustain a canopy cover above the 10% threshold (FAO, 2020b). Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates and contribute significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades (FAO, 2020a). Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990 (FAO, 2020a). Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest degradation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40% of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33% (FAO and UNEP, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b4cb5245-6c7a-4dd5-a3e4-d3116fa6e15d","prefLabel":{"en":"Desertification"},"definition":{"en":"Desertification refers to land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities (UNCCD, 2017).UNCCD, 2017. UNCCD Terminology: Desertification. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Desertification and land degradation are very serious challenges. They lead to hunger and poverty, drive unemployment, forced migration and conflict, while increasing the risk of extreme weather related to climate change (FAO, 2020a). The most widely accepted definition in China for desertification is that given by Zhu et al. (1989, cited by FAO, 1997). Zhu describes desertification as the degradation process in environments similar to that of deserts consisting of blown and undulating sand sheets and mobile dunes which occurs when fragile ecosystems such as those with loose sandy surfaces in arid semi-arid and sub-humid zones are exposed to drought and frequent wind. This process reduces biomass productivity and arable land. The environmental changes caused by desertification produce desert-like landscapes in aboriginal non-desert areas or steppes (FAO, 1997). Desertification is a silent, invisible crisis that is destabilising communities on a global scale. As the effects of climate change undermine livelihoods, inter-ethnic clashes are breaking out within and across states and fragile states are turning to militarisation to control the situation (UNCCD, 2014). The effects of desertification are increasingly felt globally as victims turn into refugees, internally displaced people and forced migrants or they turn to radicalisation, extremism or resource-driven wars for survival. If peace, security and international stability are to be restored in a context where changing weather events are threatening the livelihoods of increasing numbers of people, survival options are declining and state capacities are overburdened, then more should be done to combat desertification, reverse land degradation and mitigate the effects of drought. Otherwise, many small-scale farmers and poor, land dependent communities face two choices: fight or flight (UNCCD, 2014). In 2008, food insecurity triggered riots in over 30 countries. Drylands, which make up nearly 34% of the land mass and are a major source of food security especially for the poor, are being degraded daily (UNCCD, 2014). It is estimated that 135 million people are at risk of being displaced by desertification. The problem is most severe in sub- Saharan Africa, particularly in the Sahel and the Horn of Africa (UNCCD, 2014). A total of 842 million people, or about one in eight people in the world, were estimated to be suffering from chronic hunger in 2011–2013 and 12 million hectares of productive land become barren every year due to desertification and drought alone, which is a lost opportunity to produce 20 million tons of grain. Agricultural yields could fall by up to 50% in some African countries if production practices are not changed (UNCCD, 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a648b494-18ba-4994-98fb-6c228ebb974d","prefLabel":{"en":"Eutrophication"},"definition":{"en":"Eutrophication is the overabundance of nutrients in a body of water that results in harmful algal blooms, fish kills, and in some cases ecosystem collapse. It is a process driven by enrichment of water by nutrients, particularly compounds of nitrogen and/or phosphorus, leading to increased growth, primary production and biomass of algae; changes in the balance of nutrients causing changes to the balance of organisms; and water quality degradation (NOAA, 2007; UNEP, 2015).NOAA, 2007. National Estuarine Eutrophication Assessment: Update. National Centers for Coastal
Ocean Science, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Accessed 14 October 2020.
Ciesla, W.M. and M.E. Donaubauer, 1994. Decline and dieback of trees and forests: a global overview. FAO Forestry Paper No. 120. Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Forest ecosystems are a critical component of the world’s biodiversity as many forests are more biodiverse than other ecosystems. Forests cover 31% of the global land area. Approximately half of the forest area is relatively intact, and more than one-third is primary forest (i.e., naturally regenerated forests of native species, where there are no visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed) (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Forests provide habitat for the vast majority of the terrestrial plant and animal species known to science. Forests are being rapidly and directly transformed in many areas by the impacts of expanding human populations and economies (Allen, 2009). Forests and the biodiversity they contain continue to be under threat from actions to convert the land to agriculture or unsustainable levels of exploitation, much of it illegal (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Forest decline is characterised by the presence of symptoms such as reduced growth, shortened internodes, root necrosis, premature fall colouring in temperate forests, yellowing and loss of foliage, dieback of twigs and branches generally beginning in the upper crown, sprouting from adventitious buds and(or) increased prevalence and pathogenicity of root decay fungi (Manion and Lachance, 1992). Decline has been considered a symptom of disease, a distinct class of disease and as part of forest dynamics. Another widely accepted concept describes decline as a result of interaction of predisposing, inciting and contributing factors (Manion and Lachance, 1992). Predisposing factors are often of long-term duration with slowly changing factors such as soil, site and climate. These factors alter the ability of trees to withstand or respond to injury-inducing agents. Forests generally produce dieback of small branches. Examples include defoliating insects, late spring frost, drought (Steinkamp and Hickler, 2015) and salt spray. The contributory factors are those which further weaken and ultimately kill the tree. Examples include bark beetles, canker fungi and root decay fungi. These factors are persistent and visible and often wrongly blamed for tree death (Ciesla and Donaubauer, 1994). Less evident are the pervasive effects of ongoing climatic changes on the condition and status of forests around the world. Recent examples of drought and heat-related forest stress and dieback (defined here as tree mortality noticeably above usual mortality levels) are being documented from all forested continents, making it possible to begin to see global patterns. While climate events can damage forests in many ways ranging from ice storms to tornadoes and hurricanes, the emphasis here is on climatic water stress, driven by drought and warm temperatures (Allen, 2009). It has been estimated that the world is losing 20,000 hectares of forest a day with 835 hectares of forest disappearing every hour, the equivalent of 1140 football pitches (UNEP, FAO and UNFF, 2009)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5cfd3ea3-6e8d-4629-a5c3-e748bc2c5dbd","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest Disturbances"},"definition":{"en":"Forest disturbance is the damage caused by any factor (biotic or abiotic) that adversely affects the vigour and productivity of the forest and which is not a direct result of human activities. It includes disturbance by insect pests, diseases, severe weather events and fires (FAO, 2018, 2020).FAO, 2018. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Terms and Definitions FRA 2020. Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 188. Accessed 24 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Forest area is defined by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as: Land spanning more than 0.5 ha with trees higher than 5 m and a canopy cover of more than 10%, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use (FAO, 2018). Forest disturbances include areas of forest affected by: (i) insects: disturbance caused by insect pests; (ii) diseases: disturbance caused by diseases attributable to pathogens, such as bacteria, fungi, phytoplasma or viruses; (iii) severe weather events: disturbances caused by abiotic factors, such as snow, storm, droughts, etc; and (iv) fire: forest area affected by fire (FAO, 2018). Forest degradation does not have a single commonly agreed definition, but forest degradation is considered to occur when forest ecosystems lose their capacity to provide important goods and services to people and nature (IUCN, 2017). In the context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, forest degradation leads to a decline of carbon stocks (UNFCC, 2008). The world’s total forest area is approximately 4.06 billion ha, which is 31% of the total land area. This area is equivalent to 0.52 ha per person. Forests are not distributed equally among the world’s people, or geographically. The tropical domain has 45% of the world’s forests. It should also be noted that more than half (54%) of the world’s forests are in only five countries (Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, USA, China) (FAO, 2020). Measuring forest degradation and disturbance is challenging. There is no commonly agreed definition or monitoring method. Degradation and disturbances can entail long-term negative changes in the structure, composition and other characteristics of the forest which can be difficult to detect."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d9da3d59-208f-41b7-bcd0-59f147e77d6f","prefLabel":{"en":"Invasive species"},"altLabel":{"en":["Alien invasive species,","Alien species,","Forest pests (FAO, 2018a)","Invasive alien species"]},"definition":{"en":"‘Invasive species’, also known as ‘alien invasive species’, are species whose introduction, establishment and spread into new areas threaten ecosystems, habitats or other species and cause social, economic or environmental harm, or harm to human health (FAO, 2007:82).FAO, 2007. Invasive species. In: State of the World’s Forests. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 10 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Forest invasive species occur in all major taxonomic groups from micro-organisms to mammals. The invasive species include bacteria, fungi, flatworms, nematodes, insects and arachnids, molluscs, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, grasses, plants, trees and shrubs (FAO, 2009a). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 2009 reported that (FAO, 2009b): Globally, many forests are continually subject to severe outbreaks of invasive species, which can have huge environmental and sociocultural impacts. Threat of forest invasive species is rising with increasing global trade and travel and is exacerbated by impacts of climate change. Managing invasive species and avoiding new introductions of species with known potential to become invasive require coordinated efforts by many actors, nationally, regionally and globally (FAO and UNEP, 2020). It is very important to protect the world’s forests from harm. The global forest area is just over 4 billion ha, which represents 31% of the total land area (FAO, 2010). Forests are important global resources that provide a wide range of environmental, economic and social benefits. They provide a variety of valuable products, such as timber, fuelwood, fibre and other wood and non-wood forest products, and contribute to the livelihoods of rural communities. They provide vital ecosystem services, such as combating desertification, protecting watersheds, regulating climate, and maintaining biodiversity, and play an important role in preserving social and cultural values (FAO, 2011).","Invasive species include species, subspecies or lower taxa of invertebrates, plants, microorganisms and vertebrates non-native (alien or exotic or non-indigenous) to a particular ecosystem and whose human mediated or unintentional introduction and spread causes, or are likely to cause, socio-cultural, economic or environmental harm or harm to human health (FAO, 2007). An alien species is a species, subspecies or lower taxon, introduced outside its natural past or present distribution; it includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce (UNEP, 2002). Increasing international trade and human mobility, exacerbated by impacts of climate change, have increased the introduction of plant and animal species into new areas where they have become invasive (FAO, 2020). Estimates of the full costs of biological invasions are rare because of the difficulty in assessing the costs of impacts on biodiversity, ecosystem functions and human health, or other indirect costs such as the impact of control measures. The costs of invasive species to the forest sector have not been studied on a global scale. However, based on a study of six countries (Australia, Brazil, India, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States of America), it was estimated that as many as 480,000 alien species have been introduced in agriculture and forestry worldwide, with an annual cost of more than USD 1.4 trillion (FAO, 2007). Invasive plant and animal species are now considered one of the most important causes of biodiversity loss, especially in many island countries (CBD, 2009). Preventing and reducing the harmful effects of invasive species requires an approach that incorporates biological, ecological and social sciences, economics, policy analysis and engineering. National efforts should include early warning systems, eradication and control, as well as increased awareness and political leadership. Global, regional and bilateral efforts include standards and guidelines, monitoring and assessment, and information and action networks (FAO, 2007). Numerous international and regional programmes and instruments, binding and non-binding, have been developed to address the problem of invasive species (FAO, 2007). Different countries have different approaches – two of note are the Invasive Species Definition Clarification and Guidance prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 2006) and the Australian Weed Strategy (Australian Government, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc236b1c-27cf-4ce3-ba36-65da70b54c8a","prefLabel":{"en":"Land degradation"},"definition":{"en":"Land degradation means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns such as: soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and long-term loss of natural vegetation (UNCCD, 1993).Alternative Definition: Land degradation is the reduction in the capability of the land to produce benefits from a particular land use under a specified form of land management (FAO, 1999).Alternative Definition: Land degradation is a negative trend in land condition, caused by direct or indirect human-induced processes including anthropogenic climate change, expressed as long-term reduction or loss of at least one of the following: biological productivity, ecological integrity or value to humans. [Note: This definition applies to forest and non-forest land. Changes in land condition resulting solely from natural processes (such as volcanic eruptions) are not considered to be land degradation. Reduction of biological productivity or ecological integrity or value to humans can constitute degradation, but any one of these changes need not necessarily be considered degradation.] (Olsson et al., 2019).Land degradation means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns such as: soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and long-term loss of natural vegetation (UNCCD, 1993).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the soil conservation arena, the terms soil degradation and land degradation are sometimes incorrectly used interchangeably, with soil erosion regarded as synonymous to both. However, there is more to soil degradation than just soil erosion, and land represents a broader concept than simply soil. As with its use in the context of land evaluation (FAO, 1976), the term land refers to all-natural resources which contribute to agricultural production, including livestock production and forestry. Land thus covers climate, landforms, water resources, soils and vegetation (including both grassland and forests) (FAO, 1999). There are a number of interrelated land degradation components, all of which may contribute to a decline in agricultural production. The most important according to Douglas (1994) cited by FAO (1999): Land degradation has both on-site and off-site effects. On-site effects are the lowering of the productive capacity of the land, causing either reduced outputs (crop yields, livestock yields) or the need for increased inputs. Off-site effects of water erosion occur through changes in the water regime, including decline in river water quality, and sedimentation of river beds and reservoirs. The main off-site effect of wind erosion is overblowing, or sand deposition (FAO, 1994). Examples of causes of different types of land degradation include water erosion, wind erosion, soil fertility decline, waterlogging, salinisation, lowering of the water table, deforestation, forest degradation and rangeland degradation (FAO, 1994). In their 2019 review on land degradation for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Olsson et al. (2019) reported that land degradation adversely affects people’s livelihoods (very high confidence) and occurs over a quarter of the Earth’s ice-free land area (medium confidence). The majority of the 1.3 to 3.2 billion affected people (low confidence) are living in poverty in developing countries (medium confidence). Land-use changes and unsustainable land management are direct human causes of land degradation (very high confidence), with agriculture being a dominant sector driving degradation (very high confidence). Soil loss from conventionally tilled land exceeds the rate of soil formation by more than 2 orders of magnitude (medium confidence). Land degradation affects humans in multiple ways, interacting with social, political, cultural and economic aspects, including markets, technology, inequality and demographic change (very high confidence). Land degradation impacts extend beyond the land surface itself, affecting marine and freshwater systems, as well as people and ecosystems far from the local sites of degradation (very high confidence) (Olsson et al., 2019). Studies indicate that land degradation directly affects 1.5 billion people worldwide, with a disproportionate impact on women, children and the poor, and it reduced the productivity of the world’s terrestrial surface by about 25% between 1981 and 2003 (FAO, 2020).","Soil degradation consists of biological, chemical and physical degradation. Currently, about 33% of world soils are moderately to highly degraded. Forty percent of these degraded soils are located in Africa and most of the rest are in areas that are afflicted by poverty and food insecurity. The strong relationship between soil health and food security calls for strategic and immediate actions, especially at the local level, to reverse soil degradation in order to increase food production and alleviate food insecurity in the areas where it is most needed and in the context of climate change (FAO, 2015). Soil is an essential component of ‘land’ and ‘ecosystems’ that both are broader concepts encompassing vegetation, water and climate in the case of land, and in addition to those three aspects, also social and economic considerations in the case of ecosystems. Degraded soils have a health status such that they do not provide the normal goods and services of the particular soil in its ecosystem (FAO, 2020a). Soil degradation is the decline in soil condition caused by its improper use or poor management, usually for agricultural, industrial or urban purposes. It is a serious environmental issue. Soils are a fundamental natural resource and are the basis for all terrestrial life. Avoiding soil degradation is crucial to our well-being (NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, 2019). Soil degradation is the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality. It can be the loss of organic matter, decline in soil fertility, and structural condition, erosion, adverse changes in salinity, acidity or alkalinity, and the effects of toxic chemicals, pollutants or excessive flooding. Soil degradation can involve: water erosion (includes sheet, rill and gully erosion); wind erosion; salinity (includes dryland, irrigation and urban salinity); loss of organic matter; fertility decline; soil acidity or alkalinity; structure decline (includes soil compaction and surface sealing); mass movement; and soil contamination (NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, 2019)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3d5e1330-f23d-430f-af05-3ec87a1513fb","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest degradation"},"altLabel":{"en":["Canopy level dieback,","Forest Declines and Diebacks","Stand level dieback,","Walsterben and Waldschaden"]},"definition":{"en":"Forest declines and diebacks are episodic events characterised by premature, progressive loss of tree and stand vigour and health over a given period without obvious evidence of a single clearly identifiable causal factor such as physical disturbance or attack by primary disease or insect (Ciesla and Donaubauer, 1994).Ciesla, W.M. and M.E. Donaubauer, 1994. Decline and dieback of trees and forests: a global overview. FAO Forestry Paper No. 120. Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Forest ecosystems are a critical component of the world’s biodiversity as many forests are more biodiverse than other ecosystems. Forests cover 31% of the global land area. Approximately half of the forest area is relatively intact, and more than one-third is primary forest (i.e., naturally regenerated forests of native species, where there are no visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed) (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Forests provide habitat for the vast majority of the terrestrial plant and animal species known to science. Forests are being rapidly and directly transformed in many areas by the impacts of expanding human populations and economies (Allen, 2009). Forests and the biodiversity they contain continue to be under threat from actions to convert the land to agriculture or unsustainable levels of exploitation, much of it illegal (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Forest decline is characterised by the presence of symptoms such as reduced growth, shortened internodes, root necrosis, premature fall colouring in temperate forests, yellowing and loss of foliage, dieback of twigs and branches generally beginning in the upper crown, sprouting from adventitious buds and(or) increased prevalence and pathogenicity of root decay fungi (Manion and Lachance, 1992). Decline has been considered a symptom of disease, a distinct class of disease and as part of forest dynamics. Another widely accepted concept describes decline as a result of interaction of predisposing, inciting and contributing factors (Manion and Lachance, 1992). Predisposing factors are often of long-term duration with slowly changing factors such as soil, site and climate. These factors alter the ability of trees to withstand or respond to injury-inducing agents. Forests generally produce dieback of small branches. Examples include defoliating insects, late spring frost, drought (Steinkamp and Hickler, 2015) and salt spray. The contributory factors are those which further weaken and ultimately kill the tree. Examples include bark beetles, canker fungi and root decay fungi. These factors are persistent and visible and often wrongly blamed for tree death (Ciesla and Donaubauer, 1994). Less evident are the pervasive effects of ongoing climatic changes on the condition and status of forests around the world. Recent examples of drought and heat-related forest stress and dieback (defined here as tree mortality noticeably above usual mortality levels) are being documented from all forested continents, making it possible to begin to see global patterns. While climate events can damage forests in many ways ranging from ice storms to tornadoes and hurricanes, the emphasis here is on climatic water stress, driven by drought and warm temperatures (Allen, 2009). It has been estimated that the world is losing 20,000 hectares of forest a day with 835 hectares of forest disappearing every hour, the equivalent of 1140 football pitches (UNEP, FAO and UNFF, 2009)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/133d2809-0006-43f3-bba4-46f7e992dd2b","prefLabel":{"en":"Loss of Mangroves"},"altLabel":{"en":["Mangrove deforestation","Mangrove loss,"]},"definition":{"en":"Mangroves and the destruction of mangrove habitat is caused by both human and natural causes. Human activities in the form of farming, aquaculture, urban development and natural stressors such as erosion and extreme weather have driven mangrove habitat loss. The hazard of loss of mangroves and their ecosystem services has devastating socioeconomic and environmental consequences for coastal communities, especially in those areas with low mangrove diversity and low mangrove area (adapted from Ellison et al., 1996; Polidoro et al., 2010; and Goldberg, 2020).Goldberg, L., D. Lagomasino, N. Thomas and T. Fatoyinbo, 2020. Global declines in human‐driven mangrove loss. Global Change Biology, 26:5844-5855.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Mangroves are distinctive tropical plant communities that occupy the intertidal zone between sea and land, or in areas that are subject to the indirect influence of tides (Tomlinson, 2016). Fewer than 10 mangrove species are found in the New World tropics, while 36 species have been reported for the Indo-West-Pacific region. These species communities together make up a forest, which can be categorised as fringe, riverine, overwash, basin, or dwarf (Lugo and Snedaker, 1974). The ecosystem services that healthy mangrove stands provide include climate regulation, water purification, coastal protection, timber and fuel supply, fisheries generation, and eco-tourism support (Worthington et al., 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/86260091-10e6-4023-9c36-e8c625d3e08a","prefLabel":{"en":"Permafrost degradation"},"altLabel":{"en":["Permafrost thaw","Permafrost degradation,"]},"definition":{"en":"Permafrost is defined as the ground that remains frozen under 0°C for a minimum of two consecutive years. Permafrost loss, also known as permafrost thaw is the progressive loss of ground ice in permafrost, usually due to input of heat. Thaw can occur over decades to centuries over the entire depth of permafrost ground, with impacts occurring while thaw progresses. During thaw, temperature fluctuations are subdued because energy is transferred by phase change between ice and water. After the transition from permafrost to non-permafrost, ground can be described as thawed (IPCC, 2019).IPCC, 2019 . Annex I: Glossary [Weyer, N.M. (ed.)]. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Accessed 21 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Permafrost includes the mineral part of the ground (rocks) as well as any organic matter and ice if it is present (IPCC, 2019). The active layer is the uppermost part of permafrost, which thaws during summer and re-freezes during winter. Permafrost currently covers around 15 million km2, or approximately 24% of the land in the Northern Hemisphere, mostly in the Arctic region, and is very sensitive to climate change (Chadburn et al., 2017). Under future climate change scenarios, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models project a gradual loss of permafrost of between 0.3 and 3.4 million km2 per °C increase in global surface air temperature (5th to 95th percentile; Burke et al., 2020). This is equivalent to a reduction of between 10% and 40% per °C in the annual mean frozen volume in the top 2 m of soil. These estimates are slightly lower than the 4.0 [-1.1; +1.0] million km2 per °C equilibrium sensitivity projected by Chadburn et al. (2017) who derived this using an observational-based relationship. The permafrost region represents a large, climate sensitive reservoir of organic carbon with approximately twice as much carbon in the soil as is currently contained in the Earth’s atmosphere. The top 3 m of permafrost soils contain 1035 ± 150 Pg C (Tarnocai et al., 2009; Hugelius et al., 2014) and could become vulnerable to decomposition under climate change. Schuur et al. (2015) suggested that between 5% and 15% of this permafrost carbon pool may be decayed and released as either carbon dioxide or methane during the 21st century, contributing to further global warming. This feedback could cause an additional warming of between 0.2% and 12% of the change in global temperature by 2100 (Burke et al., 2017). About half of below-ground carbon is stored in thermokarst landscapes vulnerable to abrupt thaw (Olefeldt et al., 2016) and has not been considered in these estimates. Therefore, these estimates may well be a substantial underestimation of carbon emissions from thawing permafrost (Turetsky et al., 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58bbe0d7-cf42-4a4d-86b4-d056b663e39c","prefLabel":{"en":"Runoff / Nonpoint Source Pollution"},"definition":{"en":"Nonpoint sources of pollution refer to pollution sources that are diffused and without a single point of origin or not introduced into a receiving freshwater or maritime environment from a specific outlet. The pollutants are generally carried off the land by storm-water run-off. The commonly used categories for nonpoint sources are agriculture, forestry, urban areas, mining, construction, dams and channels, land disposal and saltwater intrusion (UN data, no date).UN Data, no date. Non-point Source Pollution. UNdata: A world of information. Accessed 15 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Nonpoint source pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage, seepage or hydrologic modification. Nonpoint source pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters and ground waters (US EPA, 2020; NOAA, no date). Nonpoint source pollution can include: excess fertilisers, herbicides and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production; sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding streambanks; salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines; bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes and faulty septic systems; and atmospheric deposition and hydromodification (US EPA, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/feea0363-edbd-4f50-ab1b-7786e1dd903c","prefLabel":{"en":"Salt-water intrusion/encroachment"},"definition":{"en":"Displacement of fresh surface water or groundwater by the advance of salt water due to its greater density. This usually occurs in coastal and estuarine areas due to decreasing land-based influence (e.g., from reduced runoff or groundwater recharge, or from excessive water withdrawals from aquifers) or increasing marine influence (e.g., relative sea level rise)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fa7bc4b6-9f14-4bdc-8f6b-4826203e8ece","prefLabel":{"en":"Sand Mining"},"definition":{"en":"Sand mining (extraction) is defined as the removal of primary (virgin) natural sand and sand resources (mineral sands and aggregates) from the natural environment (terrestrial, riverine, coastal, or marine) for extracting valuable minerals, metals, crushed stone, sand and gravel for subsequent processing (UNEP, 2019).UNEP, 2019. Sand and Sustainability: Finding new solutions for environmental governance of global sand resources. GRID-Geneva, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Accessed 20 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The United Nations Environment Programme report on Sand and Sustainability (UNEP, 2019) describes the following materials as being extracted or mined from the natural environment: The environmental and social impacts of sand extraction are issues of global significance. Eroded materials from hard rock sources, sands and gravels are the unrecognised foundational material of national economies. They are mined all over the world, with aggregates accounting for the largest volume of solid material extracted globally (UNEP, 2014, 2019). The following is a summary of the environmental degradation caused by sand mining:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9aea6522-8b64-4d70-8597-f17073d68bef","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea level rise (SLR)"},"definition":{"en":"Change to the height of sea level, both globally and locally (relative sea level change) (at seasonal, annual or longer time scales) due to (1) a change in ocean volume as a result of a change in the mass of water in the ocean (e.g., due to melt of glaciers and ice sheets), (2) changes in ocean volume as a result of changes in ocean water density (e.g.,expansion under warmer conditions), (3) changes in the shape of the ocean basins and changes in the Earth’s gravitational and rotational fields and (4) local subsidence or uplift of the land. Global mean sea level change resulting from change in the mass of the ocean is called barystatic. The amount of barystatic sea level change due to theaddition or removal of a mass of water is called its sea level equivalent (SLE). Sea level changes, both globally and locally, resulting from changes in water density are called steric. Density changes induced by temperature changes only are called thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are called halosteric. Barystaticand steric sea level changes do not include the effect of changes in the shape of ocean basins induced by the change in the ocean mass and its distribution."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a907f126-c240-4785-9b7e-1fcc7ec82ba4","prefLabel":{"en":"Wetland Loss/Degradation"},"definition":{"en":"Wetland loss/degradation is a negative trend in wetland condition, caused by physical or direct/indirect human-induced processes expressed as long-term reduction or loss of at least one of the following: biological productivity, ecological role or value to humans (Craig et al., 1979; Olsson et al., 2019). Where wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres (Ramsar Convention 1971: Article 1.1). Wetlands may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands (Ramsar Convention 1971: Article 2.1).Craig, N.J., R.E. Turner and J.W. Day, 1979. Land loss in coastal Louisiana (USA). Environmental Management, 3:133-144.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Ramsar Classification of Wetland Type includes 42 types of wetland grouped into three categories: marine and coastal wetlands, inland wetlands, and human-made wetlands. The five major wetland types are generally recognised as: marine (coastal wetlands including coastal lagoons, rocky shores, and coral reefs); estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps); lacustrine (wetlands associated with lakes); riverine (wetlands along rivers and streams); and palustrine (meaning ‘marshy’ – marshes, swamps and bogs). In addition, there are human-made wetlands such as fish and shrimp ponds, farm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, salt pans, reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and canals (Ramsar, 1971). Conversion of freshwater wetlands to agricultural land has historically been a common way of increasing the area of arable land (Olsson et al., 2019). However, wetlands with organic and wet soils are crucial in maintaining the Earth’s carbon balance as they contain soils with high organic carbon content. Human activities on wetlands (e.g., drainage, agriculture, forestry, peat extraction, aquaculture) and their effects (e.g., oxidation of soil organic matter) may significantly affect the carbon and nitrogen balance and, thus, the greenhouse gas emissions from these lands. The degradation of peatland ecosystems, for example, is particularly relevant in the context of climate change given their very high carbon storage and their sensitivity to changes in soils, hydrology and/or vegetation. Human activity, either draining or mining approximately takes up 10% of global peatlands, releasing 80.8 Gt carbon and 2.3 Gt nitrogen. This corresponds to an annual greenhouse gas emission of 1.91 (0.31–3.38) Gt CO2-equivalent. that could be saved with peatland restoration. Drainage induces peatland degradation and alters peatlands, globally, from a net sink to a net source of greenhouse gases in the land-use sector (Joosten, 2009; IPCC, 2014; Leifeld and Menichetti, 2018; Olsson et al., 2019). Wetland loss/degradation results in associated reduction in ecosystem services delivered by wetlands such as: provisioning services including food and freshwater; regulating services such as flood control, storm protection, drought buffering, groundwater recharge and discharge, and carbon sequestration; cultural services such as recreation; and supporting services such as purification of water supplies, shoreline stabilisation and erosion control; retention of nutrients, sediments, and pollutants; and stabilisation of local climate conditions – particularly rainfall and temperature. The ecosystem services related to human health primarily cover supply of water, food, nutrition, and medicine, purification of waste products, and buffering against adverse flooding and climate effects (Ramsar, 2005, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e5d3aa3a-426f-47b1-8780-eb415eaa3bd2","prefLabel":{"en":"Wildfires"},"altLabel":{"en":["Brush fire,","Bushfire,","Forest fire,","Grass fire","Landscape fire,","Peat fire,","Scrub fire,","Vegetation fire,","Wildfire","Wildland fire,"]},"definition":{"en":"Wildfires are any unplanned or uncontrolled fire affecting natural, cultural, industrial and residential landscapes (adapted from FAO, 2010).FAO, 2010. FAO Term Portal: Collection: Fire Management (A10.6)/CSCM. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 27 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Unplanned or uncontrolled landscape fires (wildfires) are either started by natural causes (lightning, occasionally by burning coal seams or volcanic activity) or – predominantly at global level – by human activities and primarily by burning live or dead vegetation in natural or anthropogenically altered ecosystems (Robinne et al., 2018). These include forests, grasslands, bush (shrub, scrub), and organic terrain (peatlands, wetlands), cultivated lands (agricultural and pasture lands, plantations, abandoned formerly cultivated lands) as well as protected lands (wilderness, conservation sites) (Robinne et al., 2018). In addition, unplanned landscape fires may affect residential and industrial areas (houses and other structures, peri-urban fringes, infrastructure including critical infrastructure) and remnants of human activities (waste deposits, remediated and un-remediated mine sites, contaminated lands), resulting in co-burning of hazardous / toxic substances (GFMC, no date). Landscape fire attributes and descriptions include: fuel type (type of vegetation / combustible material burned, such as grass, shrub, forest, peat); fire type (ground, surface, crown fire); fire behaviour, energy release and emission characteristics (fire spread, fire intensity, fire severity, radiative power, smouldering vs. flaming combustion, gas and particle emissions); and temporal and spatial dimension (e.g., creeping fires in organic terrain, spotting flashovers, short- to long-lasting events; single vs. multiple fires) (GFMC, 2013; McLauchlan et al., 2020). There have been a number of glossaries related to wildfires that have been prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in collaboration with partners, as well as glossaries developed by national bodies in various countries in order to reflect local practices and policies. In 1999, the FAO and the Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) updated the 1986 version of the publication FAO Wildland Fire Management Terminology. The revised version with English definitions and partial translation to French, Spanish, and German became available in December 2003. Translation of terms into Russian and Mongolian were added in 2008 and further revised in 2014. As of September 2010, the collection consists of 1351 concepts with synonyms, variants, definitions, remarks and context fields, where appropriate (FAO, 2010)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7776017d-a8f1-4e5a-9e82-1ef587d3465f","prefLabel":{"en":"Extraterrestrial"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b5704542-8b02-4769-839c-12908c6453cc","prefLabel":{"en":"Airburst"},"altLabel":{"en":["Air-blast,","Bolides,","Fireballs,","Superbolides"]},"definition":{"en":"An airburst is defined as an explosion in the air, especially of a nuclear bomb or large meteorite (Lexico Dictionary, no date).Lexico Dictionary, no date. Airburst. Accessed 17 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Meteoroids are objects in space that range in size from dust grains to small asteroids. Think of them as ‘space rocks’: when meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere (or that of another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn up, the fireballs or ‘shooting stars’ are called meteors. When a meteoroid survives a trip through the atmosphere and hits the ground, it is called a meteorite (NASA, no date). Research has revealed why meteors explode before impacting the Earth. During model simulations of meteors entering Earth’s atmosphere, air that was pushed into the meteoroid was allowed to percolate inside, which lowered the strength of the meteoroid significantly. In essence, air was able to reach the insides of the meteoroid and cause it to explode from inside out (Tabetah and Melosh, 2017; Williams, 2017). The hazardous effects are estimated using both semi-analytical models, realised now as simple calculators, and numerical simulations of airbursts of large meteoroids and asteroids. The numerical simulations are based on the equations of hydrodynamics and radiation transfer. Dangerous consequences include shock waves with high wind speeds, fluxes of thermal radiation capable of igniting fires and causing skin burns, seismic effects of airbursts, and ionosphere disturbances. The dangerous effects of a shock wave and thermal radiation on people are considered in the context of the Chelyabinsk meteorite of 2013 and the Tunguska airburst of 1908 (Ryabova et al., 2019). On 15 February 2013, a meteor exploded in the sky over Chelyabinsk, southern Russia. Although no people or buildings were hit by the resulting meteorite, the shockwave from the exploding object injured about 1500 people and caused damage to 7200 buildings in the region. The fireball was caught on video, mainly by dash cameras throughout the region, and posted on the internet by news organisations and individuals. Although the Chelyabinsk meteorite probably weighed about 12,000 to 13,000 tonnes and measured 17 to 20 metres in diameter before exploding, scientists were quick to point out that it was very small compared to other objects that could potentially hit the Earth. The explosion released energy estimated at about 500 kilotons of TNT (about 20 to 30 times more energy than the Hiroshima atomic bomb). The event brought to the world’s attention the very real hazards associated with the impact of objects from outer space (Nelson, 2018). In the early morning of 30 June 1908, a powerful explosion over the basin of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River (Central Siberia), devastated 2150 ± 50 km2 of Siberian taiga. Eighty million trees were thought to have been flattened, and a great number of trees and bushes were burnt in a large part of the explosion area. Eyewitnesses described the flight of a “fire ball, bright as the sun”. Seismic and pressure waves were recorded in many observatories across the world. Bright nights were seen over much of Eurasia. These different phenomena, initially considered non-correlated, were subsequently linked together as different aspects of the ‘Tunguska event’."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/66e790cf-bbbf-4d88-9158-35bd58cfb0c8","prefLabel":{"en":"Meteorite Impact"},"definition":{"en":"A meteorite is an object that survives a trip through Earth’s atmosphere and hits the ground (adapted from NASA, no date).NASA, no date. Meteors & Meteorites: What’s the difference between a meteor, meteoroid and meteorite. Science Solar System Exploration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Meteoroids are objects in space that range in size from dust grains to small asteroids. Think of them as ‘space rocks’. When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere (or that of another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn up, the fireballs or ‘shooting stars’ are called meteors. When a meteoroid survives a trip through the atmosphere and hits the ground, it’s called a meteorite (NASA, no date). On 15 February 2013, a meteor exploded in the sky over Chelyabinsk, southern Russia. Although no people or buildings were hit by the resulting meteorite, the shockwave from the exploding object injured about 1500 people and caused damage to 7200 buildings in the region. The fireball was captured on video, mainly by dash cameras, and posted on the internet by news organisations and individuals (Nelson, 2018). Although the Chelyabinsk meteorite probably weighed about 12,000 to 13,000 tonnes and measured 17 to 20 metres in diameter before it exploded, scientists were quick to state that it was very small compared to other objects that could potentially hit the Earth. The explosion released energy estimated at about 500 kilotons of TNT (about 20 to 30 times more energy than the Hiroshima atomic bomb). The event brought to the world’s attention the very real hazards associated with the impact of objects from outer space (Nelson, 2018). Metrics and numeric limits Not identified."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9b3cf640-0075-44b1-a9d3-8103309ca6e3","prefLabel":{"en":"Near-Earth Object"},"definition":{"en":"A near-Earth object (NEO) is an asteroid or comet whose trajectory brings it to within 1.3 astronomical units of the Sun and hence within 0.3 astronomical units, or approximately 45 million kilometres, of the Earth’s orbit (UN OOSA, no date).UN OOSA, no date. UN-SPIDER knowledge Portal, Near-Earth Objects. United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UN OOSA). Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The definition above includes objects that will come close to Earth at some point in their future orbital evolution. Near-Earth objects (NEOs) generally result from objects that have experienced gravitational perturbations from nearby planets, moving them into orbits that allow them to come near to Earth."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5c8a83a0-8aa3-4e9b-b1f4-aa331f666022","prefLabel":{"en":"Space Hazard / Accident"},"definition":{"en":"A space accident is any accident involving space objects that causes damage (adapted from UNGA, 1971).UNGA, 1971. Resolution 2777 (XXVI). 1998th plenary meeting, 29 November 1971. United Nation’s General Assembly (UNGA). Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term ‘damage’ refers to loss of life, personal injury or other impairment of health, or loss of or damage to property of States or of persons, natural or juridical, or property of international intergovernmental organisations. The term ‘space objects’ includes component parts of a space object as well as its launch vehicle and parts thereof (UNGA, 1971:Article I). Space debris is defined as all man-made objects, including fragments and elements thereof, in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere, that are non-functional. As the population of debris continues to grow, the probability of collisions that could lead to potential damage will consequently increase supporting the common understanding that the current space debris environment poses a risk to spacecraft in Earth orbit. In addition, there is also the risk of damage on the ground, if debris survives Earth’s atmospheric re-entry. The prompt implementation of appropriate debris mitigation measures is therefore considered a prudent and necessary step towards preserving the outer space environment for future generations (UN OOSA, 2010)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/416bd31b-c9ab-4e0b-98d6-cf5900be93fe","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydrometeorological hazards"},"altLabel":{"en":["Meteorological and hydrological hazards"]},"definition":{"en":"Hydrometeorological hazards are of atmospheric, hydrological, or oceanographic origin (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Examples are tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons and hurricanes); floods, including flash floods; drought; heatwaves and cold spells; and coastal storm surges. Hydrometeorological conditions may also be a factor in other hazards such as landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues, epidemics and in the transport and dispersal of toxic substances and volcanic eruption material (Gill et al., 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d368eebb-902d-4862-9f93-98b24cb9e40c","prefLabel":{"en":"Convective Related"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4fb0afcf-3125-4500-9ff3-e272a6e0b41e","prefLabel":{"en":"Downburst"},"altLabel":{"en":["Macroburst,","Microburst,","Wind Sear"]},"definition":{"en":"A downburst is a violent and damaging downdraught reaching the ground surface, associated with a severe thunderstorm (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary. WMO-No. 182, 2nd edition. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Downbursts are powerful winds that descend from a thunderstorm and spread out quickly once they hit the ground. These winds can easily cause damage similar to that of an EF0 (65–85 mph winds) or even EF1 (86–110 mph winds) tornado, and are sometimes misinterpreted as tornadoes. However, downbursts are a completely separate phenomenon (NOAA, 2019). The key differences between a downburst and a tornado are expressed by two words – IN and OUT (NOAA, 2019): Downbursts are also far more frequent than tornadoes – in fact, for every one tornado there are approximately ten downburst damage reports. Tornadoes average about 800 per year in the United States, in contrast to an average of 100,000 thunderstorms (NOAA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1460d7ec-586f-4bce-a735-c75479c7995f","prefLabel":{"en":"Lightning (Electrical Storm)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Bolt,","Bolt-from-the-blue,","Electrical Storm","Firebolt,","Thunderball","Thunderbolt,","Thunderstroke,"]},"definition":{"en":"Lightning is the luminous manifestation accompanying a sudden electrical discharge which takes place from or inside a cloud or, less often, from high structures on the ground or from mountains (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas: Lightening. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 26 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Lightning is a transient, high-current electric discharge with pathlengths measured in kilometres. The most common source of lightning is the electric charge separated in ordinary thunderstorm clouds. Well over half of all lightning discharges occur within the thunderstorm cloud and are called intracloud discharges (AMS, 2012). Lightning is a large electrical discharge caused by a thundercloud. It can occur within a cloud as intracloud lightning, between clouds as intercloud lightning, or between the cloud and the earth as cloud-to-ground lightning. A lightning discharge consists of pulses of electric current carried by electrons. The current is driven by a high voltage between the cloud’s charge centres or between them and the earth. During the development of a thundercloud, negative charge is accumulated in the hail-forming region at the central part of the cloud, and positive charge in the top region which consists of ice crystals (Finnish Meteorological Institute, 2019). Lightning strikes are classified into different types according to their own characteristics. The two most common types are cloud-to-ground lightning and cloud-to-cloud lightning (WMO, 2017). Ball lightening includes a fireball which sometimes appears after a lightning flash. Its diameter is usually between 10 and 20 cm and rarely attains 1 m. The fireball moves slowly through the air or along the ground, it may be distorted in passing through narrow places and usually vanishes suddenly with a violent explosion (WMO, 1992)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/65db1084-08c8-448f-ac66-ca84701931c7","prefLabel":{"en":"Thunderstorm"},"definition":{"en":"A thunderstorm is defined as one or more sudden electrical discharges, manifested by a flash of light (lightning) and a sharp or rumbling sound (thunder) (WMO, no date).WMO, no date. International Cloud Atlas. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 5 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Thunderstorms are associated with cumulonimbus clouds (WMO, 2017) and are most often accompanied by precipitation that, when it reaches the ground, is in the form of a shower of rain, snow, snow pellets, small hail or hail. Thunderstorms can cause tornadoes, strong winds, and flash flooding (Habitat for Humanity, 2021)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ae100510-cfd9-4b4d-8200-c9e59b6d74d0","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine Related"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/32dad0ef-c338-46ee-8652-14f7830c6d75","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice flow"},"definition":{"en":"Ice flow is the motion of ice driven by gravitational forces, ice stress or, for sea ice, wind, water currents and tide (AMS, 2012).\n\nReferences \nAMS, 2012. Ice flow. Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society (AMS). http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Ice_flow Accessed 16 May 2025."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/77e31b73-994d-4f9e-bece-44e778b07d64","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine heatwave"},"definition":{"en":"A period during which water temperature is abnormally warm for the time of the year relative to historical temperatures, with that extreme warmth persisting for days to months. The phenomenon can manifest in any place in the ocean and at scales of up to thousands of kilometres."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d0e2d5f-6a32-4f42-a74d-2bf2abd7e8de","prefLabel":{"en":"Rogue Wave"},"altLabel":{"en":["Extreme storm wave","Freak wave,"]},"definition":{"en":"Rogue waves are extreme waves with overall or crest heights that are abnormally high relative to the background significant wave height (WMO, 2018).WMO, 2018. Guide to Wave Analysis and Forecasting, WMO No. 702. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 12 August 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Rogue waves, called ‘extreme storm waves’ by scientists, are those waves which are greater than twice the size of surrounding waves. They are very unpredictable, and often come unexpectedly from directions other than those of the prevailing wind and waves. Since these waves are uncommon, measurements and analysis of this phenomenon are extremely rare (NOAA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cfb344df-b583-47b0-9927-f3f909cb5b56","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea ice"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ice floes,","Pack ice"]},"definition":{"en":"Ice found at the sea surface that has originated from the freezing of seawater. Sea ice may be discontinuous pieces (ice floes) moved on the ocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a motionless sheet attached to the coast (land-fast ice). Sea ice concentration is the fraction of the ocean covered by ice. Sea ice less than one year old is called first-year ice. Perennial ice is sea ice that survives at least one summer. It may be subdivided into second-year ice and multi-year ice, where multi-year ice has survived at least two summers."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The presence of sea ice in polar and subpolar oceans is a defining environmental factor that interacts with weather and climate and impacts on the ecology and human activities in these regions. Sea ice is also a significant natural hazard, both through direct interaction with assets and infrastructure and through the indirect impacts of variability and rapid changes in its distribution, in particular in Arctic and subarctic regions. There are three types of sea-ice hazard: broad, long-term hazards and risks associated with a rapid reduction in (summer) ice volume and extent; near-term hazards resulting from changes in sea-ice extent and dynamics such as increased coastal erosion and threats to coastal infrastructure; and immediate risks and the potential for disasters derived from the combination of sea-ice hazards and human activities such as shipping or offshore resource development (Eicken and Mahoney, 2015). Owing to a wide range of possible causes, preventing disasters and mitigating hazards requires approaches that address a multitude of factors. Hazard and risk maps are one option to help in the long-term planning and coordination of emergency response assets. Such maps do not appear to be available at the regional scale in the Arctic, although national ice forecasting services may generate local maps that indicate ice severity as a hazard indicator. For example, the Chinese Marine Environmental Forecasting Center’s Ice Severity Zones (Zhang et al., 2013) or the Barnett Ice Severity Index used in the United States (Eicken et al., 2009; Eicken and Mahoney, 2015). Ice crystals form at the surface of the ocean mixed layer. Under sustained heat loss these ice crystals aggregate and can form a solid layer and up to several metres thick. During this process the solid ice expels salt (brine rejection), which increases the salinity of the underlying water and can initiate convective mixing in the ocean. In a few places where this cold, salty water is dense enough, it can sink via overflowing plumes along the bottom topography to reach the ocean abyss. This newly formed dense water generally flows slowly at depth towards the equator. A thick sea-ice layer restricts wind and wave action near coastlines, lessening coastal erosion and protecting ice shelves. Sea ice also creates an insulating cap across the ocean surface, which reduces evaporation and heat loss to the atmosphere. As a result, the weather over ice-covered areas tends to be colder and drier than it would be without ice (Scott and Hansem, 2016)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/96f4e8f1-771c-442f-a2e7-6757ea6f6b16","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea ice area (SIA)"},"definition":{"en":"Sea ice area is the area covered by sea ice. In contrast to sea ice extent, it is a linear measure of sea ice coverage that does not depend on grid resolution."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/710a8475-b351-4134-a2e5-8bc16adad46a","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea ice concentration"},"definition":{"en":"Sea ice concentration is the fraction of the ocean covered by ice."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c849f252-9b49-4c1e-9816-47ba5d35cd44","prefLabel":{"en":"Seiche"},"definition":{"en":"Seiches are sea-level oscillations at the resonant frequency of enclosed bodies of water (WMO, 2011).WMO, 2011. Guide to Storm Surge Forecasting, WMO No. 1076. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Similar in motion to a seesaw, a seiche is a standing wave in which the largest vertical oscillations are at each end of a body of water with very small oscillation at the ‘node’, or centre point, of the wave. Standing waves can form in any enclosed or semienclosed body of water, from a massive lake to a small coffee cup (NOAA, 2018). The graphic shows a standing wave (black) depicted as the sum of two propagating waves travelling in opposite directions (blue and red) (NOAA, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7b6c9ef5-f6fd-4966-b259-d66c92179222","prefLabel":{"en":"Storm surge"},"definition":{"en":"A storm surge reflects the difference between the actual water level under the influence of a meteorological disturbance (storm tide) and the level which would have occurred in the absence of the meteorological disturbance (i.e., astronomical tide) (WMO, 2008, 2011, 2017).WMO, 2008. Technical Regulations, Volume III: Hydrology, WMO No. 49. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 26 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A storm surge is the rise in seawater level caused solely by a storm. It is the abnormal rise in seawater level during a storm, measured as the height of the water above the normal predicted astronomical tide. The surge is caused primarily by a storm’s winds pushing water onshore. The amplitude of the storm surge at any given location depends on the orientation of the coastline with the storm track, the intensity, size, and speed of the storm, and the local bathymetry (NOAA, 2019a). This is illustrated in the graphic below (NOAA, 2019a). A storm tide is the water level that results from the combination of the storm surge and the normal (astronomical) tide. A 3-metre (9.8 feet) storm surge on top of a high tide that is 2 metres (6.6 feet) above the mean sea level will produce a storm tide that is 5 metres (16.4 feet) above mean sea level. Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide. This rise in water level can cause extreme flooding in coastal areas, resulting from storm tides reaching up to 6 meters (20 feet) or more in some cases (NOAA, 2019b)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2deddbbb-22a6-46c8-a7fb-9c96ba05df37","prefLabel":{"en":"Storm Tides"},"definition":{"en":"A storm tides is the actual sea level as influenced by a weather disturbance. The storm tide consists of the normal astronomical tide plus the storm surge (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. Regional Association IV – Hurricane Operational Plan for North America, Central America and the Caribbean, WMO-No. 1163. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 26 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A storm tide is the water level that results from the combination of the normal (astronomical) tide and a storm surge (an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tide) (NOAA, no date). A 3-metre storm surge on top of a normal high tide that is 2 metres above mean sea level will produce a storm tide that is 5 metres above mean sea level (NOAA, no date). Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide (NOAA, no date). This rise in water level associated with a storm tide can cause extreme flooding in coastal areas particularly when a storm surge coincides with a normal high tide, resulting in storm tides of up to 20 feet or more in some cases (NOAA, 2019a). The components responsible for a storm tide are illustrated in the graphic below (NOAA, 2019b)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7cdddba9-7c28-42fe-8420-644883002da6","prefLabel":{"en":"Tsunami"},"definition":{"en":"Tsunami is the Japanese term meaning wave (‘nami’) in a harbour (‘tsu’). It is a series of travelling waves of extremely long length and period, usually generated by disturbances associated with earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor (IOC, 2019).Ramanathan, V. and G. Carmichael, 2008. Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon. Nature Geoscience, 1:221-227.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Black carbon is the sooty black material emitted from gas and diesel engines, coal-fired power plants, and other sources that burn fossil fuel. It comprises a significant proportion of atmospheric particulate matter or PM, which is an air pollutant (US EPA, 2019). Elevated black carbon concentrations in areas with high solar radiation are a major contributor to the so-called ‘brown clouds’ covering large regions, for instance in Asia. Brown clouds have led to dimming of the Earth’s surface, warming of the atmosphere and perturbation of the hydrological cycle, possibly affecting the monsoon (WMO, 2009). Black carbon is the product of incomplete combustion of fuels and can be analysed by means of different methodologies. When its light-absorbing properties are measured, soot is referred to as black carbon. When its concentration is measured by thermal-optical techniques, soot is known as elemental carbon (Popovicheva et al., 2010). Despite intensive efforts in recent decades, no widely accepted standard measurement method exists for determining black carbon or light-absorbing carbon. Real-time black carbon measurements can be performed using optical methods, which measure the absorption of light through a filter collecting airborne particles (Ahmed et al., 2010)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e3635066-99ca-4e6f-8bc3-e334d04583b3","prefLabel":{"en":"Dust storm or Sandstorm"},"altLabel":{"en":["Sandstorm"]},"definition":{"en":"A dust storm is an ensemble of particles of dust or sand energetically lifted to great heights by a strong and turbulent wind (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. Dust Storm or Sandstorm. International Cloud Atlas, World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Dust storms or sandstorms generally occur in areas where the ground is covered with loose dust or sand. Sometimes, after having travelled great distances, they may be observed over areas where no dust or sand covers the ground. The forward portion of a dust storm or sandstorm may have the appearance of a wide and high wall that advances fairly rapidly. Walls of dust or sand often accompany a cumulonimbus that may be hidden by the dust or sand particles. They may also occur without any clouds along the forward edge of an advancing cold air mass (WMO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1099fff6-ab7b-400b-b37a-c406c83c6902","prefLabel":{"en":"Fog"},"definition":{"en":"Fog is a suspension of very small, usually microscopic water droplets in the air, reducing visibility at the Earth’s surface (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. Fog. International Cloud Atlas: World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 20 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Under light wind, stable and humid conditions, if the air near the ground cools sufficiently, water vapour in the air may condense into tiny water droplets. These droplets reduce the visibility near ground level. This phenomenon is called fog (Hong Kong Observatory, 2019). Fog differs from cloud only in that its base is at the Earth’s surface while the cloud base is above the Earth’s surface. When composed of ice crystals, it is termed ice fog (WMO, 2017). Visibility reduction in fog depends on the concentration of cloud condensation nuclei and the resulting distribution of droplet sizes. According to American Meteorological Society (AMS) weather observing practice, fog that hides less than 0.6 of the sky is called ground fog. If fog is so shallow that it is not an obstruction to vision at a height of 6 feet above the surface, it is called simply shallow fog (AMS, 2012). Fog is easily distinguished from haze by its higher relative humidity (near 100%, having physiologically appreciable dampness) and grey colour. Haze does not contain activated droplets larger than the critical size according to Köhler theory (AMS, 2012). Mist may be considered an intermediate between fog and haze; its particles are smaller (a few microns maximum), it has lower relative humidity than fog, and does not obstruct visibility to the same extent (AMS, 2012). There is no distinct line, however, between any of these categories. Near industrial areas, fog is often mixed with smoke, and this combination has been known as smog. However, fog droplets are usually absent in photochemical smog, which only contains inactivated haze droplets (AMS, 2012). In aviation weather observations fog is encoded F, and ground fog GF (AMS, 2012). Metrics and numeric limits Not identified."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/41b290cd-5f16-45c4-92c4-29ab1106919e","prefLabel":{"en":"Haze"},"definition":{"en":"Haze is a suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the naked eye and sufficiently numerous to give the air an opalescent appearance (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. Haze. International Cloud Atlas, World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["As light is scattered by haze particles, distant bright objects or lights seen through the haze appear yellowish or reddish, while dark objects appear bluish. Haze particles may have a colour of their own that also contributes to this effect (WMO, 2017). In addition, haze has been described as particles suspended in air, reducing visibility by scattering light; often a mixture of aerosols and photochemical smog (AMS, 2012). Some specific types of haze include: Many aerosols increase in size with increasing relative humidity due to deliquescence, drastically decreasing visibility. On Köhler curve plots of saturation relative humidity versus aerosol particle radius, equilibrium haze particles are to the left of the peak, while growing cloud droplets are to the right (AMS, 2012). Many haze formations are caused by the presence of an abundance of condensation nuclei which may grow in size, due to a variety of causes, and become mist, fog, or cloud. Distinction is sometimes drawn between dry haze and damp haze, largely on the basis of differences in optical effects produced by the smaller particles (dry haze) and larger particles (damp haze), which develop from slow condensation upon the hygroscopichaze particles (AMS, 2012). Dry haze particles, with diameters of the order of 0.1 micron, are small enough to scatter shorter wavelengths of light preferentially (although not according to the inverse fourth-power law of Rayleigh scattering). Such haze particles produce a bluish colour when the haze is viewed against a dark background, for dispersion allows only the slightly bluish scattered light to reach the eye. The same type of haze, when viewed against a light background, appears as a yellowish veil, for here the principal effect is the removal of the bluer components from the light originating in the distant light-coloured background (AMS, 2012). Haze may be distinguished by this same effect from mist, which yields only a grey obscuration, since the particle sizes are too large to yield appreciable differential scattering of various wavelengths (AMS, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e58c6e5d-e000-44fe-a358-de63da7250d3","prefLabel":{"en":"Sand haze"},"altLabel":{"en":["Dust haze"]},"definition":{"en":"Sand haze is haze caused by the suspension in the atmosphere of small sand or dust particles, raised from the ground prior to the time of observation by a sandstorm or dust storm (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Sand haze is reduced visibility in the atmospheric boundary layer which is caused by suspended particles of soil, mixed into the air during strong winds. It is particularly prevalent in desert regions where there is little moisture and few plants to hold the sand grains to the surface (AMS, 2012). After a sandstorm the larger sand grains fall out of the air quickly, leaving a sand haze of medium-sized particles (1–100 μm diameter, including silt and fine sand) and small particles (< 1 μm diameter, including clay particles) (AMS, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7efb8fd7-e356-42bc-b868-c007f2b1a38a","prefLabel":{"en":"Smoke"},"altLabel":{"en":["Not relevant"]},"definition":{"en":"Smoke is a suspension in the air of small particles produced by combustion (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. Smoke. International Cloud Atlas, World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["This lithometeor may be present either near the Earth’s surface or in the free atmosphere. Viewed through smoke, the Sun appears very red at sunrise and sunset, and shows an orange tinge when high in the sky. Smoke from relatively near cities may be brown, dark grey or black. Smoke in extensive layers originating from fairly near forest fires, scatters the sunlight and gives the sky a greenish-yellow hue. Evenly distributed smoke from very distant sources generally has a light greyish or bluish hue. When smoke is present in large quantities, it may be distinguished by its smell (WMO, 2017). When the lithometeor ‘smoke’ is present in the free atmosphere, it is typically distinguished from clouds of smoke (clouds from fires or resulting from industry) by its diffuse appearance and by the absence of any discernible outlines (WMO, 2017). Air quality is also compromised by natural contaminants such as aeroallergens (pollen, moulds), smoke from wildfires, airborne sand and dust as well as by personal behaviour such as tobacco smoke exposure or indoor burning of solid fuels. When inhaled, these contaminants penetrate deeply into the respiratory system and may initiate a range of damaging biological reactions in the human body (WMO, 2014). As a result, air pollution is now one of the world’s greatest environmental health risks."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9f092fb6-576c-4250-9347-42a3e8cd7358","prefLabel":{"en":"Precipitation Related"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4aa6cdf9-df95-45b5-a871-d5e41f789a95","prefLabel":{"en":"Acid Rain"},"definition":{"en":"Acid rain is rain which in the course of its history has combined with chemical elements or pollutants in the atmosphere and reaches the Earth’s surface as a weak acid solution (WMO/UNESCO, 2012).WMO/UNESCO, 2012. International Glossary of Hydrology. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) / United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Accessed 15 November 2019
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Acids form when certain atmospheric gases (primarily carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides) come into contact with water in the atmosphere or on the ground and are chemically converted to acidic substances. Oxidants play a major role in several of these acid-forming processes. Carbon dioxide dissolved in rain is converted to a weak acid (carbonic acid). Other gases, primarily oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, are converted to strong acids (sulphuric and nitric acids). Rain is naturally slightly acidic owing to carbon dioxide, natural emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides, and to certain organic acids, however, emissions from human activities can make it much more acidic. Occasional pH readings of well below 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) have been reported in industrialised areas (NASA, 2014). The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes and from biological processes that occur on land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The effects of acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe (Pawar, no date). The main human sources are industrial and power-generating plants, and transportation vehicles. Since the industrial revolution, emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased. Industrial and energy-generating facilities that burn fossil fuels, primarily coal, are the principal sources of increased sulphur oxide emissions (NASA, 2019). Acidity and alkalinity are measured using a pH scale for which 7.0 is neutral. The lower the pH of a substance (below 7.0), the more acidic it is. The higher the pH of a substance (above 7.0), the more alkaline it is. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; while the pH of acid rain is typically between 4.2 and 4.4 (US EPA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6761b243-a9e4-419e-a7b4-89ae351e77f6","prefLabel":{"en":"Blizzard"},"altLabel":{"en":["In Russia ‘purga’ or ‘metel’","Snow storm"]},"definition":{"en":"A blizzard is a severe snow storm characterised by poor visibility, usually occurring at high-latitude and in mountainous regions (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term blizzard is generally used in North America and Great Britain. There are differing thresholds for defining and issuing warnings for blizzards."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/90dd727d-824f-4d8d-99e5-34b306f1d7ad","prefLabel":{"en":"Drought"},"definition":{"en":"A drought is a period of abnormally dry weather characterised by a prolonged deficiency of precipitation below a certain threshold over a large area and a period longer than a month (WMO, 2020).WMO, 2020. Guidelines on the Definition and Monitoring of Extreme Weather and Climate Events. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Final version forthcoming. Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Drought is described as conditions that are significantly drier than normal or otherwise limiting moisture availability to a potentially damaging extent (WMO and GWP, 2016) or as conditions where there had been a prolonged absence or marked deficiency of precipitation (WMO/UNESCO, 2012). Whereas drought may be defined simply as the absence of water, it is a complex phenomenon which is monitored over a number of time scales and often defined according to need. It is a slow-onset phenomenon that gradually intensifies and can impact many sectors of the economy and the environment (Drought Observatory, no date). Droughts can be characterised in terms of their severity, location, duration and timing. Droughts can arise from a range of hydrometeorological processes that supress precipitation and/or limit surface water or groundwater availability. There are various drought indicators and indices that provide options for identifying the severity, location, duration onset and cessation of such conditions. It is important to note that the impacts of drought can be as varied as the causes of drought. Droughts can adversely affect agriculture and food security, hydropower generation and industry, human and animal health, livelihood security, and personal security and access to education. Such impacts depend on the socio-economic contexts in which droughts occur, in terms of who or what is exposed to the droughts and the specific vulnerabilities of the exposed entities (WMO and GWP, 2016). The drought community has defined several different types of drought that have can general or specific sector impacts (NOAA, no date b):"]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3df9efa9-57da-46f2-b4d7-20c13dc10d80","prefLabel":{"en":"Agricultural and ecological drought"},"definition":{"en":"Depending on the affected biome: a period with abnormal soil moisture deficit, which results from combined shortage of precipitation and excess evapotranspiration, and during the growing season impinges on crop production or ecosystem function in general."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0913ea1e-64c5-465c-a6c4-453efe74fb1a","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydrological drought"},"definition":{"en":"A period with large runoff and water deficits in rivers, lakes and reservoirs."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d30affd8-1f9c-4873-ad0b-68dad92dba05","prefLabel":{"en":"Megadrought"},"definition":{"en":"A very lengthy and pervasive drought, lasting much longer than normal, usually a decade or more."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/41f4596d-a052-49c0-828f-76973ad8a6de","prefLabel":{"en":"Meteorological drought"},"definition":{"en":"A period with an abnormal precipitation deficit."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5306253b-547f-4c43-955a-49bc463797f1","prefLabel":{"en":"Hail"},"altLabel":{"en":["Hailstone","Hailstorm"]},"definition":{"en":"Hail is precipitation in the form of particles of ice (hailstones). These can be either transparent, or partly or completely opaque. They are usually spheroidal, conical or irregular in form, and generally 5−50 mm in diameter. The particles may fall from a cloud either separately or agglomerated in irregular lumps (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas: Hail. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 22 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Falls of hail always occur as showers. They are generally observed during heavy thunderstorms (WMO, 2017). Hailstones usually form around a nucleus, that may not be at their geometric centre. The nucleus may be anywhere between a few millimetres and a centimetre in diameter. The nucleus is spheroidal or conical and is composed of ice that is usually opaque, but sometimes transparent (WMO, 2017). Hailstones can occur with a great variety of forms and dimensions, even within a single fall. An ’onion skin’ formation, for example, consists of a nucleus surrounded by alternating layers of opaque and transparent ice. There are usually not more than five layers, except in very large hailstones, which have been found to have 20 or more layers. Some other hailstones do not have any layers and consist of transparent or opaque ice only. They typically have a density of between 0.85 g/cm3 and 0.92 g/cm3 but may have a lower density if they have large cavities filled with air. Some hailstones are partly composed of spongy ice, which is a mixture of ice, water and air. In exceptional circumstances, large hailstones can stick together to form irregular lumps of giant hail (WMO, 2017). Hailstones form when a nucleus collects cloud droplets or drops of rain. There is no general agreement on the nature of this nucleus; the tendency is, however, to admit that it is usually a particle of small hail that has formed around a snow pellet (WMO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4bc2b405-be8f-4a7f-b468-3939685412ac","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice Storm"},"altLabel":{"en":["Silver storm"]},"definition":{"en":"An ice storm involves the intense formation of ice on objects by the freezing, on impact, of rain or drizzle (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["An ice storm (also called a ‘silver storm’) is a storm characterised by a fall of freezing precipitation. The attendant formation of glaze on terrestrial objects creates many hazards (AMS, 2012). Ice storms result from the accumulation of freezing rain, which is rain that becomes supercooled and freezes upon impact with cold surfaces. Freezing rain is most commonly found in a narrow band on the cold side of a warm front, where surface temperatures are at or just below freezing (NWS, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0f15bf49-6d33-4a09-99ca-a588c1d5ef7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Rain"},"altLabel":{"en":["Precipitation"]},"definition":{"en":"Rain is precipitation of drops of water that fall from a cloud (WMO, 2017). While rain is essential for sustaining life and ecosystems, extreme rainfall is a primary trigger for some of the most devastating secondary hazards— flooding, landslides, and soil erosion—which result in widespread loss of life, damage to infrastructure, disruption of livelihoods, and environmental degradation (Rijal et al., 2024; Myhre et al., 2019).\n\nReference WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas: Rain. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/en/rain.html Accessed 16 May 2025. Myhre, G., Alterskjaer, K., Stjern, C. W., Hodnebrog, O., Marelle, L., Samset, B. H., Sillmann, J., Schaller, N., Fischer, E., Schulz, M. and Stohl, A., 2019: Frequency of extreme precipitation increased extensively with event rareness under global warming, Scientific Reports, 9(16063). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-52277-4 Accessed 16 May 2025. Rijal, M., Luo, P., Mishra, B. K., Zhou, M. and Wang, X., 2024: Global systematical and comprehensive overview of mountainous flood risk under climate change and human activities. Science of the Total Environment, 941(173672). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969724038191 Accessed 16 May 2025."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5221caa8-9d6b-4676-aab9-54b7db4aebca","prefLabel":{"en":"Extreme/heavy precipitation event"},"definition":{"en":"An extreme/heavy precipitation event is an event that is of very high magnitude with a very rare occurrence at a particular place. Types of extreme precipitation may vary depending on its duration, hourly, daily or multi-days (e.g., 5 days), though all of them qualitatively represent high magnitude. The intensity of such events may be defined with a block maxima approach such as annual maxima or with peaks over threshold approach, such as rainfall above the 95th or 99th percentile at a particular place."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c4f35f2f-324a-4a6a-a913-182e81b1391d","prefLabel":{"en":"Precipitation deficit"},"definition":{"en":"A period with an abnormal precipitation deficit is defined as a meteorological drought."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dc0afdde-decc-48b0-9825-d2e1733e05a5","prefLabel":{"en":"Snow"},"definition":{"en":"Snow is the precipitation of ice crystals, isolated or agglomerated, falling from a cloud (WMO, 2017). Reference WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas Manual on the Observation of Clouds and Other Meteors: Snow. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/snow.html Accessed 16 May 2025."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/88a42e96-4de2-43a3-8d4b-611989929011","prefLabel":{"en":"Snow Storm"},"altLabel":{"en":["Blizzard","Winter storm"]},"definition":{"en":"A snow storm is a meteorological disturbance giving rise to a heavy fall of snow, often accompanied by strong winds (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The National Severe Storms Laboratory report that three basic ingredients are necessary to make a winter storm (NOAA, no date):","The form, size and concentration of ice crystals differ considerably according to the temperature and supersaturation at which they develop. A fall of snow usually includes various types of snow crystals and almost all types of crystal may be observed during a single fall of snow. Small droplets of frozen water are often attached to snow crystals. If present in great numbers, these can obscure the crystalline structure of the snow. At temperatures above about -5°C, the crystals generally clump to form snowflakes (WMO, 2017). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Severe Storms Laboratory reports the occurrence of various type of snow hazard (NOAA, 2019):"]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d5b04db-bbe3-4c54-be14-c99d351bf795","prefLabel":{"en":"Pressure Related"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/418186db-5551-439c-89f9-b8ecd4111f05","prefLabel":{"en":"Depression or Cyclone (Low Pressure Area)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Cyclone","Low","Low Pressure Area"]},"definition":{"en":"A depression or cyclone is a region of the atmosphere in which the pressures are lower than those of the surrounding region at the same level (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. 2nd Edition. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A depression or cyclone is represented on a synoptic chart by a system of isobars at a specified altitude level (or a system of contours at a specified pressure level) which enclose relatively low values of pressure (or altitude) (WMO, 1992)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/371c493f-4adb-4f57-b28d-f74ab84524d3","prefLabel":{"en":"Derecho"},"definition":{"en":"Derechos are fast-moving bands of thunderstorms with destructive winds. The winds can be as strong as those found in hurricanes or even tornadoes. Unlike hurricanes and tornadoes, these winds follow straight lines (NOAA, 2019).NOAA, 2019. What is a Derecho? National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Accessed 26 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A derecho (pronounced similar to ‘deh-REY-cho’) is a widespread, long-lived wind storm that is associated with a band of rapidly moving showers or thunderstorms. Although a derecho can produce destruction similar to the strength of tornadoes, the damage is typically directed in one direction along a relatively straight swath. As a result, the term ‘straight-line wind damage’ is sometimes used to describe derecho damage. By definition, if the wind damage swath extends more than 240 miles (about 400 km) and includes wind gusts of at least 58 mph (93 km/h) or greater along most of its length, then the event may be classified as a derecho (NOAA, 2019). A derecho is a widespread convectively induced straight-line windstorm. Specifically, the term is defined as any family of particularly damaging downburst clusters produced by a mesoscale convective system (AMS, 2012a). Such systems have sustained bow echoes with book-end vortices and/or rear-inflow jets and can generate considerable damage from straight-line winds. Damage must be incurred either continuously or intermittently over a swath of at least 650 km (~400 miles) and a width of approximately 100 km (~60 miles) or more. The term derecho derives from a Spanish word that can be interpreted as ‘straight ahead’ or ‘direct’ and was chosen to distinguish between wind damage caused by tornadoes (AMS, 2012b), which have rotating flow, from straight-line winds. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Storm Prediction Center reports that the types of Derecho include: serial derechos, progressive derechos, hybrid derechos and low-point derechos (NOAA, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/07e3f1e3-51e3-4fa8-b81d-bd4c1beba9a5","prefLabel":{"en":"Extratropical cyclone"},"altLabel":{"en":["Baroclinic storm","Mid-latitude storm,"]},"definition":{"en":"An extra-tropical cyclone is a low-pressure system which develops in latitudes outside the tropics (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. 2nd Edition. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 16 May 2025.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["An extra-tropical cyclone is a storm system that primarily gets its energy from the horizontal temperature contrasts that exist in the atmosphere. Extra-tropical cyclones (also known as mid-latitude or baroclinic storms) are low pressure systems with associated cold fronts, warm fronts, and occluded fronts. In contrast, tropical cyclones typically have little to no temperature differences across the storm at the Earth’s surface and their winds are derived from the release of energy due to cloud/rain formation from the warm moist air of the tropics (NASA, 2020). Notes for clarification: Differences between an extra-tropical cyclone and a tropical cyclone: Extra-tropical cyclones are large rotating weather systems that occur in the extra-tropics (generally more than 30° latitude away from the equator). They consist of an approximately circular region of low surface pressure, of a radius of 100–2000 km, accompanied by cold and warm fronts. They typically develop in regions of strong horizontal temperature gradients, which are commonly denoted on a weather chart as a cold or quasi-stationary front. In turn, such fronts often connect to a pre-existing decaying extra-tropical cyclone, which itself is situated some way downstream (typically to the north-east) (CCPO, no date). At the same time, high up in the atmosphere (around 10 km altitude) a jet stream is typically found relatively close by. In fact, the intensity of an extra-tropical cyclone is closely related to the strength of this jet stream. The strongest extra-tropical cyclones occur in the winter months when the jet stream is at its strongest. Periods when the jet stream is unusually strong can lead to two or more strong cyclones occurring within days of each other. The total lifecycle of an extra-tropical cyclone from birth (genesis) through to development and on to decay (lysis) can occasionally be more than 10 days, although somewhere in the range of 2 to 5 days is more typical (Frame et al., 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a1b0a8fe-cb8e-4437-a577-9c6ebec2b794","prefLabel":{"en":"Gale (Strong Gale)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Strong Gale"]},"definition":{"en":"A gale is wind with a speed of between 34 and 40 knots (62–74 km/h, 32–38 mph). Also known as Beaufort scale wind force 8 (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary. WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 20 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The numerical limits of a gale are defined by the Beaufort Scale which is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land (Royal Meteorological Society, 2018). Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale. Metrics and numeric limits A gale is wind with a speed of between 34 and 40 knots (62–74 km/h, 32–38 mph). Also known as Beaufort scale wind force 8 (WMO, 1992)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9fbae2ab-6666-43be-b871-2e6e7d48e6b4","prefLabel":{"en":"Squall"},"definition":{"en":"A squall is an atmospheric phenomenon characterised by a very large variation of wind speed: it begins suddenly, has a duration of the order of minutes and decreases suddenly in speed. It is often accompanied by a shower or thunderstorm (WMO, 2018).WMO, 2018. Manual on Codes, International Codes, Volume I.2. WMO-No. 306. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Weather Service describes a squall as follows (NOAA, 2019): The American Meteorological Society describes a squall as follows (AMS, 2012):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8983d057-40ca-4536-b6be-0e48b602957b","prefLabel":{"en":"Tornado"},"altLabel":{"en":["Cold air funnel,","Funnel,","Land spout,","Twister,","Waterspout,","Whirlwind"]},"definition":{"en":"A tornado is a rotating column of air, extending from the base of a cumuliform cloud, and often visible as a condensation funnel in contact with the ground, and/or attendant circulating dust or debris cloud at the ground (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas: Tornado. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A large tornado in which the condensation funnel is at least as wide horizontally at the ground as it is in height from the ground to the cloud base may be referred to as a wedge tornado. During the dissipation stage of a tornado, the condensation funnel will shrink and narrow in width, becoming rope-like (a rope funnel), and may also become contorted. Some tornadoes may contain secondary vortices within the main circulation (suction vortices or subvortices) (WMO, 2017a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2128d18b-05fd-4fed-ab10-d5f41d664563","prefLabel":{"en":"Tropical cyclone"},"altLabel":{"en":["Tropical cyclone is a generic term. However, once this weather phenomenon has reached a specific intensity (wind speed exceeding 117 km/h), depending on the region, it can be designated as a hurricane, typhoon, tropical cyclone, cyclonic storm (WMO, 2021)"]},"definition":{"en":"A tropical storm is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans. It has a low pressure centre and clouds spiralling towards the eyewall surrounding the ‘eye’. Its diameter is typically around 200 to 500 km, but can reach 1000 km. The related hazards are very violent winds, torrential rain, high waves, storm surges and in some cases tornadoes, causing direct effects such as flash floods, flooding, coastal inundation, and indirect effects such as landslides and mudslides. The winds blow anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (WMO, 2020).The intensity of tropical storms is based on the wind speed. A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone with the maximum sustained winds of 34 knots (17.5 m/s, 63 km/h) to 47 knots (24.2 m/s, 87 km/h) near the centre. When reaching this intensity, they are named in the interests of public safety (WMO, 2021).A tropical storm is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans. It has a low pressure centre and clouds spiralling towards the eyewall surrounding the ‘eye’. Its diameter is typically around 200 to 500 km, but can reach 1000 km. The related hazards are very violent winds, torrential rain, high waves, storm surges and in some cases tornadoes, causing direct effects such as flash floods, flooding, coastal inundation, and indirect effects such as landslides and mudslides. The winds blow anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere (WMO, 2020).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A sub-tropical cyclone is a low-pressure system, developing over tropical or subtropical waters which initially contains few tropical characteristics. With time the subtropical cyclone can become a tropical cyclone (WMO, 2018). Sub-tropical cyclones have organised moderate to deep convection, but lack a central dense overcast. Unlike tropical cyclones, subtropical cyclones derive a significant proportion of their energy from baroclinic sources and are generally cold-core in the upper troposphere, often being associated with an upper-level low or trough. In comparison to tropical cyclones, these systems generally have a radius of maximum winds occurring relatively far from the centre (usually greater than 60 nautical miles), and generally have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection (WMO, 2017; NOAA, no date).","A tropical cyclone originates over tropical oceans from where it draws the energy to develop. In addition to sufficient energy from the ocean, a favourable environment is associated with enough moisture in the atmosphere, low to moderate windshear (difference between winds at low and upper atmospheric levels), and enough Coriolis force (a force associated with the rotation). They can develop in the North Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. Depending on the basin, the terminology for this weather phenomenon differs: hurricane in the North Atlantic, typhoon in the western North Pacific, and tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean.","Depending on the maximum sustained wind speed, tropical cyclones are designated as follows (WMO, no date): *The designation thresholds for storm and hurricane are based on the Beaufort Scale. Tropical cyclones can be hundreds of kilometres wide and can bring destructive high winds, torrential rain, storm surges and occasionally tornadoes (WMO, no date). The typhoon season in the western North Pacific region typically runs from May to November. The Americas/Caribbean hurricane season runs from 1 June to 30 November, peaking in August and September. The cyclone season in the South Pacific and Australia normally runs from November to April. In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, tropical cyclones usually occur from April to June, and September to November. The East Coast of Africa normally experiences tropical cyclones from November to April (WMO, no date). Note: Typhoon, hurricane, cyclone, and tropical cyclone are different terms for the same weather phenomenon in different geographical regions (WMO, no date):\n\nA sub-tropical cyclone is a low-pressure system, developing over tropical or subtropical waters which initially contains few tropical characteristics. With time the subtropical cyclone can become a tropical cyclone (WMO, 2018). Sub-tropical cyclones have organised moderate to deep convection, but lack a central dense overcast. Unlike tropical cyclones, subtropical cyclones derive a significant proportion of their energy from baroclinic sources and are generally cold-core in the upper troposphere, often being associated with an upper-level low or trough. In comparison to tropical cyclones, these systems generally have a radius of maximum winds occurring relatively far from the centre (usually greater than 60 nautical miles), and generally have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection (WMO, 2017; NOAA, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ce734015-d0e1-4aef-8cce-457ad3338ea0","prefLabel":{"en":"Wind"},"definition":{"en":"Wind is air motion relative to the Earth’s surface. Unless otherwise specified, only the horizontal component is considered (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary. WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Wind velocity is an important consideration in relation to, for example, airborne pollution and the landing of aircraft (WMO, 2018). Surface wind is considered mainly as a two-dimensional vector quantity specified by two numbers representing direction and speed (WMO, 2018). The extent to which wind is characterised by rapid fluctuations is referred to as gustiness, and single fluctuations are called gusts (WMO, 2018)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/75d4a0f7-7e99-4d9b-8f74-5ea748714d1f","prefLabel":{"en":"Temperature Related"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b2dfbbc1-0b33-4a39-b1bd-44bf2c0d2c11","prefLabel":{"en":"Cold Wave"},"definition":{"en":"A cold wave is a period of marked and unusual cold weather characterised by a sharp and significant drop in air temperatures near the surface (maximum, minimum and daily average) over a large area and persisting below certain thresholds for at least two consecutive days during the cold season (WMO, 2020).WMO, 2020. Guidelines on the Definition and Monitoring of Extreme Weather and Climate Events. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the United States, the US National Weather Service defines a cold wave as a rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours to temperatures requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities. The criterion for a cold wave is thus twofold: the rate of temperature fall, and the minimum to which it falls. The latter depends on region and time of year (AMS, 2019). In China, a cold wave is defined as disastrous weather in winter. Cold air coming down from high latitudes strengthens quickly under special weather conditions when entering middle and low latitude areas, which will bring a sharp temperature decrease, gales and snowfall and rainfall. When southward cold air reaches a certain standard, it will become a cold wave (China Meteorological Administration, 2012). A cold wave should not be confused with a ‘cold spell’, which instead refers to persistently below-average temperature conditions occurring during the warm season, which can also have severe impacts on society, in particular for human health and agriculture (WMO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/937acb1d-8ba5-428b-a2c6-5f6af16c737c","prefLabel":{"en":"Dzud"},"altLabel":{"en":["Blizzard,","Cold surge","Winter storm,"]},"definition":{"en":"A dzud (a Mongolian term that describes ‘severe winter conditions’’, sometimes spelled zud) is a cold-season disaster in which anomalous climatic (i.e., heavy snow and severe cold) and/or land-surface (snow/ ice cover and lack of pasture) conditions lead to reduced accessibility and/or availability of forage/pastures, and ultimately to high livestock mortality during winter–spring. Severe dzuds (high mortality) result from a combination of growing-season drought and severe weather (Natsagdorj and Dulamsuren, 2001; Nandintsetseg et al., 2017, 2018a,b).Natsagdorj, L. and J. Dulamsuren, 2001. Some aspects of assessment of the dzud phenomena. Pap Meteorol Hydrol 23:3-18 [in Mongolian].
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["There is a conventional classification of dzud types based on direct factors contributing to conditions that prevent animals from grazing for consecutive days, finally resulting in their starvation. These include (Fernandez-Gimenez et al., 2011): A combined (or multiple) dzud occurs when two or more of the above types of dzud occur together. Note: human-induced vulnerability, including inadequate pasture management, lack of herder experience, poverty, and insufficient winter preparedness can increase the risks of dzud impacts."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d41473af-a308-4757-beea-05b866226d32","prefLabel":{"en":"Freeze"},"altLabel":{"en":["Freeze event,","Frost,","Killing frost"]},"definition":{"en":"A freeze is an air temperature equal to or less than the freezing point of water (D °C) (adapted from WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Technically, the word ‘frost’ refers to the formation of ice crystals on surfaces, either by freezing of dew or a phase change from vapour to ice; however, the word is widely used by the public to describe a meteorological event when crops and other plants experience freezing injury (FAO, 2005). Growers often use the terms ‘frost’ and ‘freeze’ interchangeably, with the vague definition being ‘an air temperature less than or equal to 0°C’. A ‘frost’ is the occurrence of an air temperature of 0°C or lower, measured at a height of between 1.25 and 2.0 m above soil level, inside an appropriate weather shelter. Water within plants may or may not freeze during a frost event, depending on several avoidance factors (e.g., supercooling and concentration of ice nucleating bacteria). A ‘freeze’ occurs when extracellular water within the plant freezes (i.e., changes from liquid to ice) (FAO, 2005)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/92ac39e1-cbf5-481f-909e-f085fa7c3676","prefLabel":{"en":"Freezing Rain (Supercooled Rain)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Freezing drizzle"]},"definition":{"en":"Freezing rain is rain where the temperature of the water droplets is below 0°C. Drops of supercooled rain may freeze on impact with the ground, in-flight aircraft or other objects (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas Manual on the Observation of Clouds and Other Meteors. WMO-No. 407. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Freezing rain or freezing drizzle is precipitation that first falls in liquid form but then descends through a layer of cold air. If this layer is thick enough and the air temperature is below freezing, the precipitation freezes on contact with the ground (or an object that is below freezing temperature), forming a coating of ice on its surface. Driving, and even walking can be dangerous in such conditions. Ice-coated utility lines or poles can be brought down due to the excess weight of the ice (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2019). Freezing rain can sometimes land on surfaces exposed to the air (such as tree limbs) in air temperatures slightly above freezing in strong winds. Local evaporational cooling may result in freezing. Freezing rain frequently occurs, therefore, as a transient condition between the occurrence of rain and ice pellets (sleet). When encountered by an aircraft in flight, freezing rain can cause a dangerous accretion of clear icing (AMS, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4b26605f-09b9-4587-b81f-c859410297d6","prefLabel":{"en":"Frost (Hoar Frost)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Advection hoar frost,","Radiation frost","Rime,"]},"definition":{"en":"A hoar frost is a deposit of ice produced by the deposition of water vapour from the surrounding air and is generally crystalline in appearance (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas: Hoar Frost. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 1 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["There are two types of hoar frost: hoar frost (proper) and advection hoar frost. Hoar frost: A deposit of ice that generally assumes the form of scales, needles, features or fans and which forms on objects the surface of which is sufficiently cooled, generally by nocturnal radiation, to bring about the deposition of the water vapour contained in the ambient air. Hoar frost proper is ordinarily deposited on objects at or near the ground, mainly on their horizontal surfaces. Hoar frost is observed especially during the cold part of the year when the air is calm and the sky is clear (WMO, 2017). Advection hoar frost: A deposit of ice that generally assumes crystalline form and which forms on objects, the surface of which is sufficiently cold to bring about deposition of the water vapour contained in the air coming into contact with this surface, usually through a process of advection. Advection hoar frost is deposited mainly on vertical exposed surfaces. It is observed when relatively warm damp air suddenly invades a region where the temperature of the exposed surfaces is below 0°C and below the frost-point of the advected air (WMO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/753cd514-cb4c-44f2-973e-c510636c38d8","prefLabel":{"en":"Glaze"},"definition":{"en":"Glaze is a smooth compact deposit of ice, generally transparent, formed by the freezing of super-cooled drizzle droplets or raindrops on objects with a surface temperature below or slightly above 0°C (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. International Cloud Atlas: Glaze. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 20 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The deposit of ice formed by the freezing of fog or cloud droplets not supercooled at the time of impact with objects at temperatures well below 0°C, is known as glaze. Glaze on the ground must not be confused with ground ice which, on a road surface, is known as ‘black ice’ (WMO, 2017). Glaze covers all parts of surfaces exposed to precipitation. It is generally fairly homogeneous and morphologically resembles clear ice. At or near the ground, glaze forms when drizzle droplets or raindrops become supercooled as they fall through a layer of air at a sub-frost point temperature. In the free atmosphere, glaze is observed when aircraft are exposed to supercooled precipitation. Glaze forms by the slow freezing of supercooled liquid water and so penetrates the air gaps between the particles of ice before freezing (WMO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a785e85-8aa4-47a6-a361-602f5736f82f","prefLabel":{"en":"Heatwave"},"definition":{"en":"A heatwave is a marked warming of the air, or the invasion of very warm air, over a large area; it usually lasts from a few days to a few weeks (WMO, 1992). Alternative definition: A heatwave is a marked unusual period of hot weather over a region persisting for at least two consecutive days during the hot period of the year based on local climatological conditions, with thermal conditions recorded above given thresholds (WMO, 2020).WMO, 2020. Event Types of Hazards and Extreme Events (Draft). World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 9 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) uses a definition that has practical utility in addressing human health impacts. It defines heatwaves as, “periods of unusually hot and dry or hot and humid weather that have a subtle onset and cessation, a duration of at least two to three days and a discernible impact on human activities” (WMO and WHO, 2015). However, this definition is not sufficient to guide National Meteorological and Hydrological Services in developing practical methods and tools for a heatwave monitoring system that would allow comparisons across regional or international borders. Common characteristics of heatwaves such as magnitude, duration, extent, severity, and timing of the event during the heat season, are often used to compare heatwave events (Global Heat Health Information Network, 2020). Heatwaves differ from warm spells. Similar to heatwaves, warm spells are defined as a persistent period of abnormally warm weather in a location. A warm spell can similarly be defined in terms of the 90th or 95th percentile of daily maximum temperature (Tmax). A warm spell occurs at any time of the year, whereas heatwaves can only occur in the warm season (WMO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/debd35ff-059c-4cc3-aa7b-f753528c9b3e","prefLabel":{"en":"Icing (Including Ice)"},"definition":{"en":"Icing refers to any deposit or coating of ice on an object caused by the impact of liquid hydrometeors, usually supercooled (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Icing, in general, is any deposit or coating of ice on an object, caused by the impingement and freezing of liquid (usually supercooled) hydrometeors; to be distinguished from hoar frost in that the latter results from the deposition of water vapour (NOAA, 2019). An ice deposit may form on different parts of an aircraft when flying in supercooled clouds or precipitation. The intensity and characteristics of the icing vary, but depend primarily on the degree of supercooling, the droplet diameters and concentration, and the characteristics of the airflow around the aircraft. The main types of icing are soft rime, hard rime, clear ice, and glaze (WMO, 2017, 2020a,b,c,d). Necessary conditions for icing include air temperatures at or below 0°C and supercooled liquid water droplets or wet snowflakes. However, If an aircraft has been in below freezing temperatures and then in above freezing temperatures, the aircraft’s surface temperature can remain below freezing for some time. Thus, icing still may be possible in ambient temperatures above freezing (NOAA, 2019). NOTE: Supercooled liquid water droplets are predominantly found at temperatures ranging from 0°C to -20°C. Although rare, small amounts of supercooled water droplets can be found at temperatures as low as -40°C. The smaller and purer the droplets, the lower their freezing points. NOTE: When a supercooled droplet strikes an object such as the surface of an aircraft, the impact destroys the internal stability of the droplet and raises its freezing temperature. This is known as aerodynamic heating – the temperature rise resulting from adiabatic compression and friction as the aircraft penetrates the air (NOAA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0e9c6bea-625a-4605-b3d2-df52cfcad370","prefLabel":{"en":"Thaw"},"definition":{"en":"Thaw is the melting of snow or ice at the Earth’s surface due to a temperature rise above 0°C (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Additional definitions of thaw include: To melt a substance, ice for example, by warming it to a temperature greater than the melting point of the substance, or to have frozen contents melted (AMS, 2012). To free something from the binding action of ice by warming it to a temperature above the melting point of ice (AMS, 2012). A warm spell when ice and snow melt, for example, ‘January thaw’ (AMS, 2012)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b0d7e4d3-85f3-4fb1-aedf-71221484ecb4","prefLabel":{"en":"Terrestrial"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/389c78c2-d58c-43bb-be55-73102da15542","prefLabel":{"en":"Avalanche"},"definition":{"en":"An avalanche is a mass of snow and ice falling suddenly down a mountain slope and often taking with it earth, rocks and rubble of every description (WMO, 1992).WMO, 1992. International Meteorological Vocabulary, WMO-No. 182. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 4 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a hill or mountainside (NSIDC, 2021). Although avalanches can occur on any slope given the right conditions, certain times of the year and certain locations are more dangerous than others. Winter, particularly from December to April in the Northern Hemisphere, is when most avalanches tend to happen (NSIDC, no date). There are different types of avalanche (SLF, no date a):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6bf89ffe-a2b3-43ce-92e1-28ecd5cc85f3","prefLabel":{"en":"Mud Flow"},"altLabel":{"en":["Debris flow","Hyperconcentrated flow,","Land slide,"]},"definition":{"en":"A mud flow is a flow of water so heavily charged with sediment and debris that the flowing mass is thick and viscous (WMO and UNESCO, 2012).WMO and UNESCO, 2012. International Glossary of Hydrology. WMO-No.385. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A flow is a spatially continuous movement in which the surfaces of shear are short-lived, closely spaced, and usually not preserved. The component velocities in the displacing mass of a flow resemble those in a viscous liquid. Often, there is a gradation of change from slides to flows, depending on the water content, mobility, and evolution of the movement. Debris flows and mudflows usually occur in small, steep stream channels and are commonly mistaken for floods (Highland and Bobrowsky, 2008). Metrics and numeric limits Not available."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f473a232-f2a8-46d9-9082-fe981a4af1ba","prefLabel":{"en":"Rock slide"},"altLabel":{"en":["Rock fall","Rotational slide,","Translational slide,"]},"definition":{"en":"A rock slide is a movement of a mass of soil or rock on an individualized failure surface (Dennis and Didier, 2019).Dennis, F. and H. Didier, 2019. Rock slides and rock falls, a fatality? Encyclopaedia of the Environment (2019). Accessed 20 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Different types of slide can be distinguished according to the shape of the failure surface. These can be identified as translational landslides and rotational slides:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/33e88ac9-486b-4da2-926f-a2f1d97e7d5f","prefLabel":{"en":"Sediment Rock Avalanche"},"altLabel":{"en":["Rock fall-debris avalanche"]},"definition":{"en":"Rock avalanches are a translational form of mass movement where the transported material is dry rock that is fragmented before or during slope failure. They are rapid with long runouts and large volumes and often involve the entrainment of slope material, commonly therefore, giving rise to debris slides or flows. The motion of rock avalanches is massive such that the bulk of the rock fragments move together as a largely coherent mass (adapted from Collins, 2014 and USGS, no date).Collins, G.S., 2014. Rock avalanche. In: Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Springer. Accessed 15 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Volcanos and earthquakes are commons triggers for rock avalanches. They can occur in all rock types but are associated with rock that is more competent. Large rock avalanches are hypermobile and exhibit more movement than predicted from frictional models incorporating air entrainment, pore pressures or fine bed layers (Hungr et al., 2001, 2014)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ea7503b4-cf3b-446d-9854-06ebdc769b00","prefLabel":{"en":"Water Related"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58d1c857-2638-477d-bc96-ce5b3afc0ee0","prefLabel":{"en":"Flood"},"definition":{"en":"The overflowing of the normal confines of a stream or other water body, or the accumulation of water over areas that are not normally submerged. Floods can be caused by unusually heavy rain, for example, during storms and cyclones. Floods include river (fluvial) floods, flash floods, urban floods, rain (pluvial) floods, sewer floods, coastal floods, and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/248003d7-9bb7-46ae-88c0-be597c08c09c","prefLabel":{"en":"Coastal Flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Coastal inundation","Storm Surge,"]},"definition":{"en":"Coastal flooding is most frequently the result of storm surges and high winds coinciding with high tides. The surge itself is the result of the raising of sea levels due to low atmospheric pressure. In particular configurations, such as major estuaries or confined sea areas, the piling up of water is amplified by a combination of the shallowing of the seabed and retarding of return flow (WMO, 2011).WMO, 2011. Manual on Flood Forecasting and Warning. WMO-No. 1072. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Major deltas such as the Mississippi and Ganges are prone to coastal flooding when affected by hurricanes (cyclones). Another sensitive area is the southern North Sea in western Europe, as a result of particular tracks of winter depressions. If the surge takes place near the mouth of a river issuing into the sea, the river flow will be obstructed due to the surge, resulting in severe flooding over and near the coastal areas. Tsunamis resulting from sub-seabed earthquakes are a very specific cause of occasionally severe coastal flooding (WMO, 2011). Coastal flooding is largely a natural event, however human influence on the coastal environment can exacerbate coastal flooding (Dawson et al., 2009). Extraction of water from groundwater reservoirs in the coastal zone can enhance subsidence of the land increasing the risk of flooding (Nicholls, 2002). Seawater can flood the land via several paths:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7ae48a6d-1ef0-4400-8a26-12e65ee5b93e","prefLabel":{"en":"Estuarine (Coastal) Flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Flood,","Flooding,","Flood","Coastal inundation","Coastal flood","Coastal flooding"]},"definition":{"en":"Estuarine flooding is flooding over and near coastal areas caused by storm surges and high winds coincident with high tides, thereby obstructing the seaward river flow. Estuarine flooding can be caused by tsunamis in specific cases (WMO, 2011).WMO, 2011. Manual on Flood Forecasting and Warning. WMO-No. 1072. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 17 April 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Estuaries are inlet areas of the coastline where the coastal tide meets a concentrated seaward flow of fresh water in a river. The interaction between the seaward flow of river water and landward flow of saline water during high tides may cause a build-up of water or inland-moving tidal bore. Frequently, the funnel shape characteristic of many estuaries causes an increase in high water levels in the upper, narrowing reaches of the associated river. These types of flood are mostly experienced in deltaic areas of rivers along the coasts, for example the mouths of the Ganges. They are more frequent and less severe in terms of inundated depth and area than flooding caused by storm surges (WMO, 2011)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a1f198c3-44ae-428e-a062-b5a10dc68f83","prefLabel":{"en":"Flash Flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Freshet,","Huayco","Storm-driven flood,"]},"definition":{"en":"A flash flood is a flood of short duration with a relatively high peak discharge in which the time interval between the observable causative event and the flood is less than four to six hours (WMO, 2006).WMO, 2006. Technical Regulations. Volume III: Hydrology, WMO-No. 49. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 20 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A flash flood is generally characterised by raging torrents after heavy rains, a dam or levee failure or a sudden release of water in a previously stopped passage (i.e., by debris or ice) that rips through riverbeds, urban streets, or mountain canyons sweeping away everything in its path. Steep terrain tends to concentrate runoff into streams very quickly and is often a contributory factor. Changes in soil properties (e.g., burn areas from wildfires), hydrophobic or impervious soils, removal of surface vegetation, and excess runoff from warm rainfall on significant snowpack can also be important contributors (NOAA, no date a; AMS, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bbdfb015-161b-4999-9d91-55afca84f685","prefLabel":{"en":"Fluvial (Riverine) Flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Flood,","Flooding","River Flood","Riverine Flood"]},"definition":{"en":"A fluvial flood is a rise, usually brief, in the water level of a stream or water body to a peak from which the water level recedes at a slower rate (WMO, 2012).WMO, 2012. Definition number 543. International Glossary of Hydrology. WMO-No. 385. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 16 April 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Fluvial flooding occurs over a wide range of river and catchment systems. Floods in river valleys occur mostly on flood plains or wash lands as a result of flow exceeding the capacity of the stream channels and spilling over the natural banks or artificial embankments (Fernandez, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/41a9bb2c-dd21-4a8f-a5f9-f64f0f0578e0","prefLabel":{"en":"Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)/Glacier lake outburst"},"altLabel":{"en":["GLOF","Glacier lake outburst"]},"definition":{"en":"A ‘glacial lake outburst flood’ is a phrase used to describe a sudden release of a significant amount of water retained in a glacial lake, irrespective of the cause (Emmer, 2017).Emmer, A., 2017. Glacier Retreat and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). Accessed 7 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is used here to refer to the catastrophic release of a water reservoir that has formed either at the side, in front, within, beneath or on the surface of a glacier. Dam structures that impound the water reservoir may be composed primarily of glacial ice, morainic debris, or bedrock (GAPHAZ, 2017). GLOFs are characterised by extreme peak discharges, often several times in excess of the maximum discharges of hydrometeorological induced floods, with an exceptional erosion/transport potential. They can therefore turn into flow-type movements, such as GLOF-induced debris flow (Emmer, 2017; UN-SPIDER, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/064f8a52-1e43-45cc-bf56-1efa960fd435","prefLabel":{"en":"Groundwater Flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Flood"]},"definition":{"en":"A groundwater flood is the emergence of groundwater at the ground surface away from perennial river channels or the rising of groundwater into man-made ground, under conditions where the ‘normal’ ranges of groundwater level and groundwater flow are exceeded (BGS, 2010).BGS, 2010. Groundwater flooding research overview. British Geological Survey (BGS). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Groundwater flooding is a different type of hazard than river or surface water flooding in that the onset is not an immediate process where water suddenly encroaches areas not normally inundated. In contrast, the water levels within permeable strata will gradually rise over time giving rise to the formation of springs and ephemeral streams, areas of ponding, surcharging of wells and boreholes, and water ingress in basements, tunnels, or other below ground structures. Water levels can remain high for many weeks or even months, depending on the nature of the underlying strata and meteorological and hydrological conditions (WMO, no date). Groundwater flooding occurs when the natural underground drainage system cannot drain rainfall away quickly enough, causing the water table to rise above the ground surface. It can pose a significant flood hazard for many rural communities and its increased frequency in recent years highlights the need for further research (Geological Survey Ireland, 2021). Both perched groundwater and periodic springs can be causes of floods:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dcde5f6a-d6d1-4852-b14e-c0afe20f72c2","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice-Jam Flood Including Debris"},"altLabel":{"en":["Flood,","Flooding"]},"definition":{"en":"An ice jam flood including debris is defined as an accumulation of shuga including ice cakes, below ice cover. It is broken ice in a river which causes a narrowing of the river channel, a rise in water level and local floods (WMO, 2012).Shuga is defined as accumulation of spongy white ice lumps, a few centimetres across, formed from grease ice or slush, and sometimes from anchor ice rising to the surface (WMO, 2012).An ice jam flood including debris is defined as an accumulation of shuga including ice cakes, below ice cover. It is broken ice in a river which causes a narrowing of the river channel, a rise in water level and local floods (WMO, 2012).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["An ice jam flood is caused by an accumulation of ice in a river, stream or other flooding source that reduces the cross-sectional area available to carry the flow and forces an increase in water-surface elevation (WMO, 2012). Metrics and numeric limits Not applicable."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/53072dad-954b-4b63-beb2-88a565d8d406","prefLabel":{"en":"Pluvial flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Rain flood","pluvial flooding"]},"definition":{"en":"Pluvial flooding occurs when the amount of rainfall exceeds the capacity of urban storm water drainage systems or the ground to absorb it. This excess water flows overland, ponding in natural or man-made hollows and low-lying areas or behind obstructions (FloodInfo.ie, n.d)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/22ffb164-c6c9-4131-80d7-d297800f3811","prefLabel":{"en":"Ponding (Drainage) Flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Drainage flood,","Surface retention"]},"definition":{"en":"A ponding flood is a flood which results from rainwater ponding at or near the point where it falls because it is falling faster than the drainage system (natural or man-made) can carry it away (WMO, 2006).WMO, 2006. Technical Regulations Volume III: Hydrology. WMO-No. 49. Page IX. World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A ponding flood is that part of the precipitation which remains on the ground surface, without running off or infiltrating, until it evaporates or transpires (Flood Site, 2008)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c9749181-ca8e-4788-a44a-1daccd778b08","prefLabel":{"en":"Snowmelt Flood"},"altLabel":{"en":["Flood,","Flooding,","Melt-induced flooding,","Snowmelt-runoff floods"]},"definition":{"en":"A snowmelt flood is a significant flood rise in a river caused by the melting of snowpack accumulated during the winter (WMO, 2012).WMO, 2012. Definition number 1352. International Glossary of Hydrology. WMO-No. 385. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 17 April 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In upland and high-latitude areas where extensive snow accumulates over winter, the spring thaw produces meltwater runoff. If temperature rises are rapid, the rate of melting may produce floods, which can extend to lower parts of the river systems. The severity of meltwater floods will increase if the thaw is accompanied by heavy rainfall and can be further exacerbated if the subsoil remains frozen. Although a seasonal occurrence where major snowfields exist in headwaters, which may produce beneficial flooding in downstream areas, severe effects can occur on smaller scales, especially in areas subject to changes between cold and warmer rainy winter weather (USGS, no date; WMO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d8bfa22-428a-4d08-a903-8a182aecc7f3","prefLabel":{"en":"Surface Water Flooding"},"altLabel":{"en":["Surface retention","Depression storage,","Surface detention,"]},"definition":{"en":"Surface water flooding is that part of the rain which remains on the ground surface during rain and either runs off or infiltrates after the rain ends, not including depression storage (WMO, 2012).WMO, 2012. Definition number 1465. International Glossary of Hydrology. WMO-No. 385. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 17 April 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Surface water flooding is caused when the volume of rainwater falling does not drain away through the existing drainage systems or soak into the ground but lies on or flows over the ground instead. This type of flooding is usually short-lived and associated with heavy downpours of rain, thunderstorms etc. (NFU, 2019). The UK Government provides a real time flood information service which is easily accessible (UK Government, no date)."]}}]}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d5887606-82a8-4ab6-9e3a-5569aee8df89","prefLabel":{"en":"Natural hazard"},"altLabel":{"en":["natural hazards","natural_hazards"]},"definition":{"en":"Hazards that are predominantly associated with natural processes and phenomena (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/420e8401-d58e-4f5f-80ab-6c759f121b1b","prefLabel":{"en":"Technological hazards"},"definition":{"en":"Technological hazards originate from technological or industrial conditions, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or specific human activities (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Examples include industrial pollution, nuclear radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport accidents, factory explosions, fires and chemical spills. Technological hazards also may arise directly as a result of the impacts of a natural hazard event (Gill et al., 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3916829b-caa0-486f-aa1c-4d01b98f4a32","prefLabel":{"en":"CBRNE (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b561a283-3211-4c19-9055-1eb830e493a3","prefLabel":{"en":"Biological Agents"},"definition":{"en":"Biological agents, according to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (1972), include germs, toxins and viruses that can sicken or kill people, livestock, or crops (UNODA, 1972).UNODA, 1972. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction: Article I. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA). Accessed 1 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Because biological material (irrespective of its means of synthesis, production or application) can have both peaceful and nonpeaceful purposes, no purely scientific definition of prohibited items is possible; although indicative lists have been developed by the Australia Group (2015) and governments to implement strategic trade controls. Bacteria: Bacillus anthracis (the bacterium causing Anthrax) is one of the most common biological agents used because its spores are easily found in nature, can be produced in a laboratory, and can persist for a long time in the environment. People get infected with anthrax when spores get into the body. The microscopic spores can be put into powders, sprays, food, and water (WHO, 2008). Toxins: Botulinum toxin, also known as Agent X is the most toxic agent known to humankind and is a very potent neurotoxin, which blocks the release of critical enzymes from the human nervous system. The lethal dose for humans of such toxins is in the sub-microgram range, which is many times lower (more toxic) than the dosage for nerve agents. Ricin (produced in nature in the seeds of the castor bean plant) and saxitoxin (produced in nature by cyanobacteria) are also listed in Schedule 1 of the Convention, however their toxicity is less than for Botulinum toxin (UNODA, 1972; Nigam and Nigam, 2010). Viruses: These include virus derived diseases, particularly smallpox which was eradicated in 1980. Although smallpox, caused by variola virus no longer occurs naturally, the threat remains. There are concerns that variola virus, may exist outside of the two World Health Organization (WHO)-designated collaborating centres in the United States and Russia. The risk for an intentional or accidental release of the smallpox virus is believed to be low, but the effects of such an event could be devastating. The potential consequences make planning for a smallpox emergency critical (CDC, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c34c92ef-e5d2-4d84-b970-2032e796e723","prefLabel":{"en":"Chemical Warfare Agents"},"definition":{"en":"Chemical agents or ‘chemical warfare agents’ (chemical weapons) are chemicals used to cause intentional death or harm through their toxic properties. Munitions, devices and other equipment specifically designed to weaponise toxic chemicals also fall under the definition of chemical weapons. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) prohibition against the use of toxic chemicals and their precursors and also covers toxins of biological origin (OPCW, 2019a,b).OPCW, 2019a. What is a chemical weapon? Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). Accessed 1 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The relevant toxic chemicals are listed in the Chemical Weapons Convention’s Annex on Chemicals (OPCW, 2019b) and, in principle, the understanding and application of a so-called General Purpose Criterion (GPC) and include:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/86a1f9ef-e0a1-4b1c-b3d2-be32f1361c96","prefLabel":{"en":"Explosive agents"},"altLabel":{"en":["Radionucleide"]},"definition":{"en":"Explosive agents include improvised explosive devices (IEDs) which can be made anywhere from a wide range of materials – from everyday tools, to conventional explosives, to commercial explosives used in construction and mining. They are cheap and relatively easy to construct (UNODA, 2014).UNODA, 2014. Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) Publication. United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA). Accessed 1 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The threat of improvised explosive device (IED) attacks is a global problem. Cheap and relatively easy to construct, IEDs can be made anywhere from a wide range of materials. Categorisation of the harm from the explosive device can be determined through its velocity (high/low). The lack of proper stockpile security of military and commercial explosives – making them susceptible to diversion into illicit hands – also presents a significant security risk (UNODA, 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17dd4f2e-963e-4044-a8fe-7f3e7f12e748","prefLabel":{"en":"Nuclear agents"},"definition":{"en":"Nuclear agents are derived from neutron radiation (n) which is a neutron emitted by an unstable nucleus, in particular during atomic fission and nuclear fusion. Apart from a component in cosmic rays, neutrons are usually produced artificially. Because they are electrically neutral particles, neutrons can be very penetrating and when they interact with matter or tissue, they cause the emission of beta- and gamma-radiation. Neutron radiation therefore requires heavy shielding to reduce exposure (IAEA, 2004).IAEA, 2004. Radiation, People and the Environment. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Accessed 1 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Dispersal of neutron radiation through nuclear weapons, including improvised nuclear devices (IND) results in a nuclear yield unlike radiation dispersal devices (RDD). This nuclear yield is measured in kilotons (kT) and one unit has the explosive energy equivalent to a thousand tons of TNT. Nuclear detonations are capable of producing impacts far surpassing that of any conventional explosive (IAEA, 2004). A significant effect of a nuclear explosion is the blast generated. The blast originates from the rapidly expanding fireball of the explosion, which generates a pressure wave moving rapidly away from the point of detonation. Initially, near the point of detonation (also referred to as ‘ground zero’) for a surface nuclear burst, the overpressure is extremely high. With increasing distance from ground zero, the overpressure and speed of the blast wave dissipate to a point at which they cease to be destructive. In the case of a nuclear terrorism incident, the thermal pulse can cause skin burns on those people within a few miles of the incident who have a line-of-sight view of the fireball (IAEA, 2004). There will be many hazards after a nuclear terrorism incident, including widespread fires and the presence of toxic materials, but one of the most significant in terms of human health for a ground level or near ground level nuclear incident, will be the residual radiation from radioactive fallout and neutron activation of materials. Although the radiation levels are most hazardous in the first few hours, some areas within a few miles downwind may still be hazardous days after the incident. Rapid identification of these fallout areas for implementation of protective measures is one of the highest priorities for emergency management and public health authorities (IAEA, 2004)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6c65d873-b8f3-433f-8aae-b8c9ede86339","prefLabel":{"en":"Radiation Agents"},"altLabel":{"en":["Radionucleide"]},"definition":{"en":"A substance or a material emitting, or related to the emission of, ionizing radiation (either in the form of electro-magnetic waves or particle radiation) is radioactive. Depending on the magnitude of exposure, the radioactive substance may become a hazard to human health; as such it is subject to regulatory control by national laws and national regulatory authorities. Radioactive material may also be hazard to animal health, other forms of life and the environment (IAEA, 2018).IAEA, 2018. IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection, 2018 edition. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Accessed 15 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Radioactive materials (natural and human-made) are widely used in industry, medicine and research but can also be used as radiation agents as part of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive (CBRNE) incidents."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/09b9e15e-4ed2-4cbf-975a-96086dfb65a5","prefLabel":{"en":"Cyber Hazard"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cea6c2ef-9e00-461d-8e99-25456031b879","prefLabel":{"en":"Cyberbullying"},"altLabel":{"en":["Cyber harassment,","Harassment online,","Online bullying,","Online harassment"]},"definition":{"en":"Cyberbullying is bullying that takes place using digital devices such as cell/mobile phones, computers, and tablets. Cyberbullying can occur through SMS, e-mail, apps, social media, forums, or gaming when people view, participate in, or share content. Cyberbullying includes the deliberate sending, posting, or sharing of negative, harmful, false, or mean content about someone else. It can include sharing personal or private information about someone else causing embarrassment or humiliation. Some cyberbullying may also be unlawful or criminal behaviour (US Government, 2020).US Government, 2020. What is Cyberbullying: Stopbullying.gov. Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) describes cyberbullying as bullying with the use of digital technologies. It is repeated behaviour, aimed at scaring, angering or shaming those who are targeted. Examples include: spreading lies about or posting embarrassing photos of someone on social media; sending hurtful messages or threats via messaging platforms; and impersonating someone and sending mean messages to others on their behalf (UNICEF, no date). Face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying can often happen alongside each other. But cyberbullying leaves a digital footprint – a record that can prove useful and provide evidence to help stop the abuse (UNICEF, no date). The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and UNICEF define cyberbullying as wilful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices (ITU and UNICEF, 2015). It may involve direct (such as chat or text messaging), semi-public (such as posting a harassing message on an e-mail list) or public communications (such as creating a website devoted to making fun of the victim). Online harassment is harassment taking place via the internet (on a social network, a forum, a multiplayer video game, blogs). Other cyberbullying activities include: dissemination of photos or video ridiculing the person; grooming; radicalisation; nonconsensual diffusion of intimate photos or personal information; dissemination of false rumours; identity theft from social media accounts; impersonating another person online; sharing private messages; creating hate websites/social media pages; excluding people from online groups; flaming, or using purposeful extreme or offensive language in order to get into online arguments and fights; and cyber stalking (PHE, 2014; Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, 2019; Public Service France, 2020; Family Lives, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a284dcfd-bcc3-41b4-8003-e2b1df79a3ed","prefLabel":{"en":"Data Breach"},"altLabel":{"en":["Data leak,","Data spill,","Intellectual data breach","Security breach,"]},"definition":{"en":"A data breach is a compromise of security that leads to the accidental or unlawful destruction, loss, alteration, unauthorised disclosure of, or access to protected data transmitted, stored, or otherwise processed (ICO, no date).ICO, no date. Personal Data Breaches. Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO). Accessed 30 April 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Ponemon Institute defined a data breach as an event in which an individual’s name and a medical record and/or a financial record or debit card is potentially put at risk – either in electronic or paper format (Ponemon Institute, 2017). They identified three main causes of a data breach: malicious or criminal attack, system glitch or human error (Ponemon Institute, 2017). The costs of data breach vary according to the cause and the safeguards in place at the time of the data breach. Metrics and numeric limits Not available globally."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/68b27071-b317-4e74-9ed4-b37cb2fe229c","prefLabel":{"en":"Data Security-Related Hazards"},"altLabel":{"en":["Security incidents,","Security threats"]},"definition":{"en":"Data security is related to the preservation of data to guarantee availability, confidentiality and data integrity. Data security-related hazards include risks arising from increased system complexity because this provides opportunities for malicious cyberattacks and data loss in the case of serious incidents, including natural disasters (ITU, 2017).ITU, 2017. X.1040 (10/17). Security reference architecture for lifecycle management of e-commerce business data: Information and network security – Network security. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Accessed 5 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["To guarantee service continuity and integrity, the information and communications technology (ICT) systems that oversee and control data security-related hazards and will need to consider, from the initial stages of inception and design, measures to ensure cybersecurity, robustness, reliability, privacy, information integrity, and crucially, resilience (ITU, 2015). For example, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) suggests that the resilience of ICT systems is linked to a series of attributes, which can be linked to security as follows (ITU, 2015): Achieving resilience and cyber resilience in an ICT context will ensure service continuity."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f67c212b-45d0-43bf-95fd-841d8ebffd49","prefLabel":{"en":"Disrupt"},"altLabel":{"en":["Disruption tolerance,","Internet resilience,","Network security"]},"definition":{"en":"A service procedure is disrupted by another service if the second service results in service primitives of the first service not being used as specified for the procedure of the first service (ITU, 2012)A service procedure is disrupted by another service if the second service results in service primitives of the first service not being used as specified for the procedure of the first service (ITU, 2012)
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disruption of cyber networks is a complex issue (Seattle Office of Emergency Management, 2019) and may occur through:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/376304e7-289b-4c6e-8bcd-825ea9c9361d","prefLabel":{"en":"Malware"},"altLabel":{"en":["Malicious software,","Trojan horses,","Viruses,","Worms"]},"definition":{"en":"Malware is a summary term for different forms of malevolent software designed to infiltrate and infect computers, typically without the knowledge of the owner (ITU, 2008).ITU, 2008. ITU Study on the Financial Aspects of Network Security: Malware and Spam. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Accessed 3 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In 2008, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) reported that until a few years ago, the most common types of malware were viruses and worms. More recently other types have appeared and are widely distributed, including Trojan horses, backdoors, keystroke loggers, rootkits, and spyware. These terms correspond to the functionality and behaviour of the malware. For instance, a virus is self-propagating, and a worm is self-replicating (ITU, 2008a). Malware is often categorised into ‘families’ (referring to a particular type of malware with unique characteristics) and ‘variants’ (usually a different version of code in a particular family). Malware is put in an information system to cause harm to that system or other systems, or to subvert them for use other than that intended by their owners (ITU, 2008a). There are two principal ways by which malware can be inserted into information systems to carry out the malicious player’s goal. One option is an automated installation, and the other is manual installation. Malware compromises the system and may download additional payload code to expand or update its functionality. Once installed, new features and capabilities are therefore easily added (ITU, 2008a). Malware can be used to distribute spam and to support criminal activities including those based on spam. It can be used to infect systems to gain remote access for the purpose of sending data from that system to a third party without the owner’s permission or knowledge. Malware can be instructed to hide that the information system has been compromised, to disable security measures, to damage the information system, or to otherwise affect the data and system integrity. Sometimes the malware uses encryption to avoid detection or conceal its means of operation (ITU, 2008a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/450e4dd3-6189-4b7d-97a7-a1672a60d061","prefLabel":{"en":"Misconfiguration of Software and Hardware"},"definition":{"en":"Misconfiguration of software and hardware is the incorrect or suboptimal configuration of an information system or system component that may lead to vulnerabilities (NIST, no date).NIST, no date. Misconfiguration. Glossary: Computer Security Resource Center. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Information Technology Laboratory. Accessed 9 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Security configuration includes security rules configured in the cloud platform, network, virtual machines and various application components. It is different to a high-level security policy, which sets out the organisation’s approach to achieve its information security objectives (ITU, 2016). Misconfiguration implies an incorrect or suboptimal system component that may lead to vulnerabilities in the cloud platform, network, virtual machines and various application components (NIST, no date). Cloud service providers (CSPs) should execute the integrated security configuration management to provide efficient implementation and fast deployment of the security configuration (ITU, 2016). In security configuration management, it is suggested that CSPs set security policy configuration templates and security configuration policy baselines. Furthermore, CSPs should take measures to ensure the consistency and efficiency of security configuration when the cloud environment changes and to isolate the security configuration between Cloud service customers (CSCs) in a multi-tenancy environment (ITU, 2016). Security configuration templates include the main templates of security configuration that the current cloud computing environment needs, such as account management, authentication, access control policies, audit policies, dynamic response policies, application and software update policies, and backup and recovery policies (ITU, 2016). Security configuration baselines provide a criterion for the security configuration requirements of the entire cloud computing environment, which can help CSPs evaluate whether the current security configuration meets the fundamental security level or not, and further provide detailed guidance to reinforcement. The categories of security configuration baselines should include but are not limited to the following: operating system (OS) security configuration baselines, database security configuration baselines, firewall security configuration baselines, switch security configuration baselines, and router security configuration baselines, etc. Security configuration management involves the following measures (ITU, 2016):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5f4ab378-8dc2-49ca-acc8-9e7e0a58b6cb","prefLabel":{"en":"Non-Conformity and Interoperability"},"definition":{"en":"Conformity assessment: activity that provides demonstration that specified requirements relating to a product, process, system, person or body are fulfilled (NIST Information Technology Laboratory, no date).For the purposes of this standard, interoperability allows any government facility or information system, regardless of the personal Identity verification (PIV) Issuer, to verify a cardholder’s identity using the credentials on the PIV Card (NIST, no date).Conformity assessment: activity that provides demonstration that specified requirements relating to a product, process, system, person or body are fulfilled (NIST Information Technology Laboratory, no date).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Conformity assessment guarantees that ICT equipment implements a technical specification or standards. Compliance helps vendors and users of the equipment to evaluate how the equipment will perform in the network where it will integrate with other network devices to provide an offered network service. Interoperability testing measures if two or more products correctly implement the technical specifications necessary to ensure successful integration supporting particular communication protocols (ITU, 2020). Conformance and interoperability testing is important to identify the possible non-compliance aspects of equipment to be part of an Information and Communications Technology (ICT) network, as defined by accepted standards in the industry, that may interfere in the quality of the network service being provided. High quality performing products available for commercial use contribute to the widespread deployment of the network technologies and their associated network services (ITU, 2020). International Telecommunication Union relevant information and activities:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6299164d-a777-4d18-b5c4-d30b8bacc221","prefLabel":{"en":"Outage"},"altLabel":{"en":["Cyber disruption","Internet outage,","Network service disruption,","Service outage,"]},"definition":{"en":"A cyber outage is the unavailability of a service or resource (ITU, 1996).ITU, 1996. X.791: Profile for trouble management function for ITU-T applications. Series X: Data Networks and Open system Communication. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Accessed 30 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Cybersecurity is crucial to ensuring universal, trustworthy, and equitable access to connectivity (ITU, 2019a). Cyber outages or disruptions of service or operations are critical issues for maintaining cybersecurity. In their summary on the role of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in building confidence and trust in the use of information and communication technology (ICT), the ITU stated that “Enhancing cybersecurity and protecting critical information infrastructures are essential to every nation’s social and economic development. Cybersecurity-related incidents can compromise the availability, integrity and confidentiality of information transiting on networks and disrupt the operations and functioning of critical infrastructure, digital and physical. They can also compromise the security of people and whole countries where a cyberthreat is a potential malicious act that seeks to damage data, steal data, or disrupt digital life in general, irrespective of whether it actually occurs or succeeds” (ITU, 2019a). In particular, ITU noted that cyber disruptions are a cyber threat."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/63a5996f-2721-4f89-8a28-b0c33353bd00","prefLabel":{"en":"Personally Identifiable Information (PII) Breach"},"altLabel":{"en":["General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR),","Identity theft,","Information risk management,","Personal data breach,","Personal information breach","Privacy breach,"]},"definition":{"en":"A personally identifiable information (PII) breach is a situation where PII is processed in violation of one or more relevant PII protection requirements (ITU, 2018).ITU, 2018. Security framework for the Internet of things based on the gateway model ITU-X 1361 (09/18). Series X: Data Networks, Open System Communications and Security: Secure applications and services (2) – Internet of things (IoT) security. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Accessed 4 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 2018 Security framework for the Internet of things based on the gateway model ITU-X 1361 (09/18) includes additional agreed information for a personally identifiable information (PII) breach as follows: Any information that (i) can be used to identify the PII principal to whom such information relates, or (ii) is or might be directly or indirectly linked to a PII principal (ITU, 2018). To determine whether a PII principal is identifiable, account should be taken of all means which can reasonably be used by the privacy stakeholder holding the data, or by any other party, to identify that natural person. It also addresses malicious code execution and defines this as any part of a software system or script, which is intended to cause undesired effects, security or PII breaches, or damage to a system. Typical examples includes viruses, worms, and Trojan horses (ITU, 2018)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c58bdc83-e63e-430e-950f-7e2bad34fec2","prefLabel":{"en":"Industrial Failure"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84e4f2ae-6b33-4696-b89a-0956a498f0af","prefLabel":{"en":"Explosion"},"definition":{"en":"Explosion-related technological incidents can be defined as accidental or intentional events that result in the actual or potential exposure of responders and/or members of the public to a chemical hazard (adapted from WHO, no date).WHO, no date. Technical Hazard Sheet -Technological Disaster Profiles. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 23 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The effects of explosions can be devastating in terms of lives lost, injuries, damage to property and the environment, and to business continuity. Working with flammable liquids, dusts, gases and solids is hazardous because of the risk of explosion and potentially a subsequent fire (HSE, no date). Explosions include accidents at hazardous installations (such as chemical plants) and accidents while hazardous substances are in transport (such as by tankers or lorries). Notable examples of chemical plant explosions include those at the Piper Alpha oil platform in the North Sea in 1986 (Cullen, 1990), the AZF fertiliser factory in Toulouse, France in 2001 (French Ministry of Sustainable Development, 2013) and the Buncefield oil storage depot in 2005 (HSE, 2011). Fires and explosions are frequently grouped together but an explosion can happen without a fire. Explosion-related technological incidents can be sudden and acute, when hazardous chemicals are ‘overtly’ released into the environment. The factors leading up to an incident include poor maintenance of manufacturing and storage equipment, lack of regulation and/or poor enforcement of safety regulations, road traffic accidents, human error, natural events such as heavy rain, earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, and terrorism (WHO, no date). Most explosion-related technological incidents occur at the interfaces between transport, storage, processing, use, and disposal of hazardous chemicals, where these systems are more vulnerable to failure, error or manipulation. Exposure levels generally differ for the different people involved in a chemical incident (WHO, no date):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5090e8e7-5acf-4b12-88ca-f60f380f2040","prefLabel":{"en":"Fire"},"definition":{"en":"Fire related technological incidents can be defined as accidental or intentional events that result in the actual or potential exposure of responders and/or members of the public to a chemical hazard (adapted from WHO, no date)WHO, no date. Technical Hazard Sheet - Technological Disaster Profiles. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 23 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The effects of fires or explosions can be devastating in terms of lives lost, injuries, damage to property and the environment, and to business continuity. Working with flammable liquids, dusts, gases and solids is hazardous because of the risk of fire and explosion (HSE, no date). Fire-related chemical incidents may also include explosion, spills, leaks and contamination. Notable examples of fire-related technological incidents include the Piper Alpha oil platform disaster, UK, 1986 (Cullen, 1990), the Kuwaiti oil fires in 1991 (Al-Damkhi et al., 2009), the World Trade Centre fires in New York, USA in 2001 (Klitzman and Freudenberg, 2003), and the explosion and fire at the Buncefield oil storage depot, UK, in 2005 (HSE, 2011). Fire-related technological incidents can be sudden and acute, when hazardous chemicals are ‘overtly’ released into the environment. The factors leading up to an incident include poor maintenance of manufacturing and storage equipment, lack of regulation and/or poor enforcement of safety regulations, road traffic accidents, human error, natural events such as heavy rain, earthquakes, hurricanes, and floods, and terrorism (WHO, no date). Most fire-related technological incidents occur at the interfaces between transport, storage, processing, use, and disposal of hazardous chemicals, where these systems are more vulnerable to failure, error or manipulation. Exposure levels will in general be quite different for different people involved in a chemical incident (WHO, no date):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7d01a7a9-eebd-4b9e-bad2-6094cabdafb2","prefLabel":{"en":"Leaks and Spills"},"definition":{"en":"A leak or a spill is an incident involving the uncontrolled release of a toxic substance, potentially resulting in harm to public health and the environment. Chemical incidents can occur as a result of natural events, or as a result of accidental or intentional events. These incidents can be sudden and acute or have a slow onset when there is a ‘silent’ release of a chemical. Chemical leaks and spills can range from small releases to full-scale major emergencies (adapted from WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Chemical incidents. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 23 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Three notable examples of technological incidents involving a chemical leak and/or spill are the Seveso chemical leak, the Bhopal chemical leak and the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Seveso chemical leak: At approximately 12:37 on Saturday 10 July 1976, a bursting disc on a chemical reactor ruptured at the Icmesa chemical company, Seveso, Italy. Maintenance staff heard a whistling sound and a cloud of vapour was seen to issue from a vent on the roof. A dense white cloud, of considerable altitude drifted offsite. Among the substances in the white cloud was a small deposit of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (‘TCDD’ or ‘dioxin’), a highly toxic material. The release lasted for twenty minutes. Over the next few days there was confusion due to the lack of communication between the company and the authorities in dealing with this type of situation. The nearby town of Seveso, located 15 miles from Milan, had 17,000 inhabitants. No human deaths were attributed to TCDD but many people fell ill. Thousands of animals in the contaminated area died and many thousands more were slaughtered to prevent TCDD entering the food chain (HSE, no date). Bhopal chemical leak: On 3 December 1984, more than 40 tons of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India. The gas drifted over the densely populated neighbourhoods around the plant killing thousands of people immediately. The leak also had long-term effects on health, with estimates of over 15,000 people killed in the years following the leak. This event highlighted the need for enforceable international standards for environmental safety, preventative strategies to avoid similar accidents and industrial disaster preparedness (Broughton, 2005). Exxon Valdez oil spill: On 24 March 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on a charted rock, Bligh Reef, in Alaska’s northern Prince William Sound. More than 11 million litres of crude oil spilled, eventually polluting over 30,000 km2 of coastal and offshore waters (Peterson et al., 2003). Technological incidents such as chemical spills and leaks can be sudden and acute, when hazardous chemicals are ‘overtly’ released into the environment. Some chemical leaks and spillages may also result in fires, explosions and contamination of land. The factors leading up to an incident include poor maintenance of manufacturing and storage equipment, lack of regulation and/or poor enforcement of safety regulations, road traffic accidents, human error, natural events such as heavy rain, earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, and terrorism (WHO, no date). Chemical spills and leaks are one of the issues addressed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). They report that spills and leaks from containers are a major problem in the storage and transport of pesticides. The main cause of these spills and leaks is rough handling which dents drums, weakens or splits seams and weakens closures (lids, caps, stoppers). Leaks also result from corrosion of the container, which may be accelerated by mechanical damage (dents may rupture drum linings). Corrosion may start internally, with the pesticide itself or its breakdown products being the primary cause. Alternatively, corrosion may begin externally, due to rusting in damp storage conditions or contamination from chemicals leaking from nearby containers. Rodents may damage paper, board or fibre containers. Termites may attack paper and card. Pesticides should be repacked in containers made of the same materials as the original containers because some chemicals are not compatible with different materials (FAO, no date). Most chemical spill-related technological incidents occur at the interfaces between transport, storage, processing, use, and disposal of hazardous chemicals, where these systems are more vulnerable to failure, error or manipulation. Exposure levels will in general be quite different for different people involved in a chemical incident (WHO, no date):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c06e5825-b689-403f-bd10-5f5547775ebb","prefLabel":{"en":"Mining Hazards"},"altLabel":{"en":["Mining catastrophes,","Mining disasters"]},"definition":{"en":"Mining hazards can be defined as having major environmental impacts including the production of waste, release of toxic and hazardous waste, air pollution and emissions, water pollution and depletion, and the loss of productive land and ecosystems (adapted from UNDP and UN Environment, 2018).UNDP and UN Environment, 2018. Managing Mining for Sustainable Development: A sourcebook. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Accessed 12 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Over recent decades, mining has generated considerable wealth, reduced poverty in developing countries, and improved quality of life through the provision of natural resources. Although mining has considerable benefits, this industry can have harmful impacts on people, society, and the environment (Donelly, 2018). The most common mining hazards include but are not limited to ground collapse, subsidence, fault reactivation and fissures, mine water rebound, acid mine water drainage, mine gas emissions, and combustion. Other notable hazards are mining-induced landslides, mining-induced seismicity, waste, dereliction, and contamination. Although potentially foreseeable, mining hazards cannot necessarily be forecast or predicted in terms of their timing, location, duration, magnitude, and extent. Mining hazards can occur in isolation or as groups of hazards occurring simultaneously (Donelly, 2018). To prevent mining hazards occurring, monitoring and site inspections are recommended prior to, during, immediately after and long after mineral production ceases and a mine is abandoned (Donelly, 2018). Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) has experienced substantial growth in recent years, largely due to the increasing value of mineral prices and additional sources of income, particularly in Africa and Latin America. Despite being low in productivity, ASM is an important source of minerals and metals and accounts for approximately 20% of the global gold supply and 20% of the global diamond supply. In 2017, 40.5 million people are estimated to have been involved within this sector. The most recent estimates are for about 9 million ASM operators in Africa and about 54 million people whose livelihoods depend on the sector (IGF, 2017). However, The Africa Minerals Development Centre considers this a ‘conservative estimate’, citing an important lack of data on ASM, as the activity is often informal and mostly operates illegally in several African countries. The Latin America ASM sector has strict regulations on informal operators and the use of certain substances but has limited capacity to implement these regulations. It is particularly difficult to control informal mining where there are large numbers of miners; such as in Colombia, where about 87% of 4134 Colombian gold mining operations are illegal and 95% of all the gold mines have no environmental permit (IGF, 2017). Perceptions of ASM activity vary from country to country. Stakeholders often tend to vilify artisanal and small-scale mining because of its informal nature and hazardous characteristics, with significant health and safety risks as well as susceptibility to social conflict and human rights violations (Barreto, 2011). The use of hazardous substances in mining puts the health of miners and their communities at risk – they are exposed, for example, to mercury, zinc vapour, cyanide, or other acids. This is a particular concern in artisanal gold mining, where mercury is frequently deployed and cyanide use is growing. Other health concerns include inhaling dust and fine particles from blasting and drilling processes causing respiratory diseases such as silicosis or pneumoconiosis in men and women, and in the children who often accompany their parents a lack of ear protection to filter noise from equipment such as drills or crushers can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss and speech interference (ILO, 2014). Concrete actions started in 2018 with a focus on formalisation, establishing gold-buying schemes, capacity building at the national level on mercury-free technologies, awareness raising and knowledge sharing. Governments need to adopt a progressive approach to eliminating the use of hazardous chemicals."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e2c6130d-8703-449a-ac1a-60fd726d7a60","prefLabel":{"en":"Natech"},"altLabel":{"en":["Natech accident,","Secondary technological hazard"]},"definition":{"en":"Natural hazard triggered technological accident (Showalter et al., 1994).Showalter, P.S. and M.F. Myers, 1994. Natural disasters in the United States as release agents of oil, chemical, or radiological materials between 1980-1989: analysis and recommendations. Risk Analysis, 14:169-182.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Natural hazards can trigger fires, explosions, and toxic or radioactive releases at hazardous installations and other infrastructures that process, store, or transport dangerous substances (Krausmann et al., 2017). These technological ‘secondary effects’ caused by natural hazards are also called ‘Natech’ accidents. They are a returning but often overlooked feature in many natural-disaster situations and have repeatedly had significant and long-term social, environmental, and economic impacts. In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, Natech accidents add significantly to the burden of the population already struggling to cope with the effects of the triggering natural event (Krausmann et al., 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ade0f5de-434a-465f-a758-387260688cab","prefLabel":{"en":"Safety Hazards Associated with Oil and Gas"},"definition":{"en":"Oil and gas extraction, and associated servicing activities involve many types of equipment and materials. Identifying and controlling hazards is critical to preventing injuries and deaths (US Department of Labor, no date).Alternative definition: For the purpose of the C155 - Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155) (ILO, 1981):a) the term branches of economic activity covers all branches in which workers are employed, including the public service.b) the term workers covers all employed persons, including public employees.c) the term workplace covers all places where workers need to be or to go by reason of their work and which are under the direct or indirect control of the employer.d) the term regulations covers all provisions given force of law by the competent authority or authorities.e) the term health, in relation to work, indicates not merely the absence of disease or infirmity; it also includes the physical and mental elements affecting health which are directly related to safety and hygiene at work.Oil and gas extraction, and associated servicing activities involve many types of equipment and materials. Identifying and controlling hazards is critical to preventing injuries and deaths (US Department of Labor, no date).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The oil and gas industry will retain an important role as affordable, reliable and versatile energy products for a growing global population. According to the International Energy Agency, in 2019, oil and gas combined, accounted for more than 50% of global energy demand and it is expected in the long term that energy demand will still grow by 25% by 2040. The challenge is to address climate change through emission reduction while also meeting global energy demand and supporting economic development in the long term (IAEA, 2019). Oil and gas extraction activities include exploration, drilling, production, construction, transport and catering to refineries, which they also help to plan, build, equip and maintain, and delivery of energy products (ILO, 2010). Oil and gas extraction activities have the potential to cause damage to or destruction of property and the environment and could even lead to injury and loss of life, particularly if the activity is not controlled, monitored, or regulated appropriately (Rodhi et al., 2018). Safety hazards associated with oil and gas extraction activities include but are not limited to (US Department of Labor, no date):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c5d748b4-a6dd-466f-884a-7c728ffa2337","prefLabel":{"en":"Soil Pollution"},"altLabel":{"en":["Soil contamination","Contaminated Land,","Special sites,","‘Brownfield’ sites,"]},"definition":{"en":"Soil pollution refers to the presence of a chemical or substance out of place and/or present in a soil at higher than normal concentration that has adverse effects on any non-targeted organism (Rodríguez-Eugenio et al., 2018).Rodríguez-Eugenio, N., M. McLaughlin and D. Pennock, 2018. Soil Pollution: A Hidden Reality. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. www.fao.org/3/i9183en/i9183en.pdf
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Human activities over thousands of years have left a legacy of polluted soils worldwide. Much of it is local soil contamination which occurs commonly in connection to past and present mineral extraction, industrial activities, waste management and disposal, and includes remnants of hazardous materials such as obsolete pesticides. Countless chemical agents, some of them highly persistent, are found at various levels in the ground and can enter groundwater and surface water, locally produced food, and can even become airborne (gases, vapours, dusts, particulates). Soil pollution and its adverse health effects have been documented in many cases, but the magnitude of the overall impact on human health is not known. This is in contrast to air or water pollution, for which reliable estimates of their impacts have been available for two decades (FAO, 2018). Soil pollution has been identified as one of the main soil threats affecting global soils and the ecosystem services that they provide (FAO and ITPS, 2015). Soil pollution poses a serious risk to human health through direct contact (dermal exposure, inhalation of polluted soil particles, intentional ingestion of polluted soil) or indirectly, by consuming plants or animals that have accumulated significant amounts of soil contaminants (FAO, 2018). For example, in an area of Japan where soil has been contaminated with cadmium from zinc/lead mines, Itai-itai disease used to be widespread and is still seen in women over 50 years of age. Itai-itai disease is characterised by osteomalacia, osteoporosis, painful bone fractures and kidney dysfunction (WHO, 2019). Health risks associated with the widespread soil pollution by radionuclides released during the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 are an enduring memory for many people (Rodríguez-Eugenio et al., 2018). Despite efforts in many regions of the world to estimate the extent of soil pollution, the lack of harmonised and comprehensive data at national, regional and global level limits the mobilisation of economic resources to minimise soil pollution and to achieve public and private commitment to combating soil pollution. There is a need to translate sound scientific evidence into concrete actions to prevent, control and remediate soil pollution (FAO, 2018). Remediation of polluted soils is essential, and research continues to develop novel, science-based remediation methods. Increasingly, expensive physical remediation methods such as chemical inactivation or sequestration in landfills are being replaced by science-based biological methods such as enhanced microbial degradation or phytoremediation (Rodríguez-Eugenio et al., 2018). The maintenance of soil health and the prevention and reduction of soil pollution are possible through promoting sustainable soil management practices, environmentally friendly industrial processes, reduction of waste generation, recycling and reuse of goods, and sustainable waste storage (FAO, 2018). The risks to human health posed by contaminated soils is assessed by comparing a representative soil concentration with chemical specific assessment criteria indicative of ‘safe’ levels of exposure. There is no international standard for deriving these criteria. For example, Jennings (2013) compared the range of American standards with standards used elsewhere around the world. A total of 5949 guidance values for 57 elements were identified across the US regulatory authorities and assessment criteria values were seen to have been published in at least 71 other United Nations member states."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ab0619f8-2619-4fad-9415-14192191d94c","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9b627f18-7a53-4dc2-a56a-198a80823a06","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine Debris"},"altLabel":{"en":["Nanoparticles","Microplastics,"]},"definition":{"en":"Marine debris is any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment. Marine litter consists of items that have been made or used by people and deliberately discarded into the sea or rivers or on beaches; brought indirectly to the sea with rivers, sewage, storm water or winds; or accidentally lost, including material lost at sea in bad weather (adapted from UN Environment, no date; and NOAA, no date).UN Environment, no date. Marine Litter. Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Marine debris originates from many sources and causes a wide spectrum of environmental, economic, safety, health and cultural impacts. The very slow rate of degradation of most marine litter items, mainly plastics, together with the ever growing quantity of debris disposed of, is leading to a gradual increase in marine litter found at sea and on the shores (United Nations, 2017). Marine debris is present in all marine habitats, from densely populated regions to remote areas far from human activities, from beaches and shallow waters to deep ocean trenches (Wang et al., 2016). The average density of marine debris is estimated to vary from 13,000 to 18,000 pieces per square kilometre (UNEP, 2017). However, data on plastic accumulation in the North Atlantic and Caribbean from 1986 to 2008 showed that the highest concentrations (more than 200,000 pieces per square kilometre) occurred in the convergence zones between two or more ocean currents (Law et al., 2010). Computer model simulations, based on data from about 12,000 satellite-tracked floats deployed since the early 1990s as part of the Global Ocean Drifter Program, confirm that debris will be transported by ocean currents and will tend to accumulate in a limited number of subtropical convergence zones or gyres (Wang et al., 2016). Plastics are by far the most prevalent debris item recorded, contributing an estimated 60% to 80% of all marine debris. Plastic debris continues to accumulate in the marine environment. The density of microplastics within the North Pacific Central Gyre has increased by two orders of magnitude in the past four decades. Marine debris commonly stems from shoreline and recreational activities, commercial shipping and fishing, and dumping at sea. The majority of marine debris (approximately 80%) entering the sea is considered to originate from land-based sources. Nanoparticles are a form of marine debris, the significance of which is only now emerging. They are minuscule particles with dimensions of 1 to 100 nanometres (a nanometre is one millionth of a millimetre). A large proportion of the nanoparticles found in the ocean are of natural origin. It is the anthropogenic nanoparticles that are of concern. Those originate from two sources: from nanoparticles deliberately created for use in various industrial processes and cosmetics and from the breakdown of plastics in marine debris, fragments of artificial fabrics discharged in urban wastewater, and leaching from land-based waste sites. Recent research has highlighted the potential environmental impacts of plastic nanoparticles: they appear to reduce primary production and uptake of food by zooplankton and filter-feeders (United Nations, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d0e2d5f-6a32-4f42-a74d-2bf2abd7e8de","prefLabel":{"en":"Rogue Wave"},"altLabel":{"en":["Extreme storm wave","Freak wave,"]},"definition":{"en":"Rogue waves are extreme waves with overall or crest heights that are abnormally high relative to the background significant wave height (WMO, 2018).WMO, 2018. Guide to Wave Analysis and Forecasting, WMO No. 702. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 12 August 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Rogue waves, called ‘extreme storm waves’ by scientists, are those waves which are greater than twice the size of surrounding waves. They are very unpredictable, and often come unexpectedly from directions other than those of the prevailing wind and waves. Since these waves are uncommon, measurements and analysis of this phenomenon are extremely rare (NOAA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/30740901-c181-4303-a9ea-1b851f77f2ab","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea Water Intrusion"},"altLabel":{"en":["Saltwater encroachment","Saltwater intrusion,"]},"definition":{"en":"Seawater intrusion is the process by which saltwater infiltrates a coastal aquifer, leading to contamination of fresh groundwater (NRC, 2011).NRC, 2011. Saltwater Intrusion and Climate Change: A primer for local and provincial decisionmakers. Natural Resources Canada (NRC). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["With rising sea levels, saline water intrusion into coastal aquifers, surface waters and soils is expected to become more frequent and advance further inland. Salinisation of groundwater, surface water and soil resources also increases with landbased drought events, and decreasing river discharge in combination with water extraction and sea-level rise (Oppenheimer et al., 2019). Seawater intrusion is also known as saltwater intrusion, and defined as ‘a process by which saltwater invades freshwater in service water or groundwater bodies’ (WMO, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c849f252-9b49-4c1e-9816-47ba5d35cd44","prefLabel":{"en":"Seiche"},"definition":{"en":"Seiches are sea-level oscillations at the resonant frequency of enclosed bodies of water (WMO, 2011).WMO, 2011. Guide to Storm Surge Forecasting, WMO No. 1076. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Similar in motion to a seesaw, a seiche is a standing wave in which the largest vertical oscillations are at each end of a body of water with very small oscillation at the ‘node’, or centre point, of the wave. Standing waves can form in any enclosed or semienclosed body of water, from a massive lake to a small coffee cup (NOAA, 2018). The graphic shows a standing wave (black) depicted as the sum of two propagating waves travelling in opposite directions (blue and red) (NOAA, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2deddbbb-22a6-46c8-a7fb-9c96ba05df37","prefLabel":{"en":"Storm Tides"},"definition":{"en":"A storm tides is the actual sea level as influenced by a weather disturbance. The storm tide consists of the normal astronomical tide plus the storm surge (WMO, 2017).WMO, 2017. Regional Association IV – Hurricane Operational Plan for North America, Central America and the Caribbean, WMO-No. 1163. World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Accessed 26 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A storm tide is the water level that results from the combination of the normal (astronomical) tide and a storm surge (an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tide) (NOAA, no date). A 3-metre storm surge on top of a normal high tide that is 2 metres above mean sea level will produce a storm tide that is 5 metres above mean sea level (NOAA, no date). Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide (NOAA, no date). This rise in water level associated with a storm tide can cause extreme flooding in coastal areas particularly when a storm surge coincides with a normal high tide, resulting in storm tides of up to 20 feet or more in some cases (NOAA, 2019a). The components responsible for a storm tide are illustrated in the graphic below (NOAA, 2019b)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1af7e331-2680-41de-9082-ac46cd05f9de","prefLabel":{"en":"Transportation"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8b2a841e-7bce-4e98-a2f7-91757bef52d7","prefLabel":{"en":"Air Transportation Accident"},"definition":{"en":"An air transportation accident is defined as an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked, in which one of the following applies: a person is fatally or seriously injured, the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure, and the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019:119).United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019. Glossary for transport statistics. 5th Edition. Accessed 8 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Additional information on air transportation accidents from the Glossary for Transport Statistics (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019) is as follows:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c2d08c66-ed60-4c5f-a808-b363619f5364","prefLabel":{"en":"Inland Water Ways"},"definition":{"en":"An inland waterway transportation accident is an unwanted or unintended sudden event or a specific chain of such events occurring in connection with inland water vessel operations, which have harmful consequences (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019).United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019. Glossary for transport statistics. 5th Edition. Accessed 30 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Glossary for Transport Statistics prepared by the United Nations, the European Union and the International Transport Forum at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2019) gives additional information for Inland Waterways Transportation Accidents, and describes these as an event that has resulted in any of the following: the death of, or serious injury to, a person that is caused by, or in connection with, the operations of an Inland Waterway Transport (IWT) vessel; or the loss of a person from an IWT vessel that is caused by, or in connection with, the operations of an IWT vessel; or the loss, presumed loss or abandonment of an IWT vessel; or material damage to an IWT vessel; or the stranding or disabling of an IWT vessel, or the involvement of an IWT vessel in a collision; or material damage to the inland waterways’ infrastructures external to a vessel that could seriously endanger the safety of the vessel or another vessel or an individual; or damage to the environment brought about by the damage of an IWT vessel or IWT vessels being caused by, or in connection with, the operations of an IWT vessel or IWT vessels. Any accident in connection with the normal operation of the vessel, including when it is in port or at anchor is covered. Terrorism, other criminal acts and acts of war are excluded. By definition suicides are excluded as they are a deliberate act. Illness not related to operation of the ship is excluded."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/35bc3f53-50bb-4692-a445-6495d2bcf304","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine Accident"},"definition":{"en":"A marine accident is an event, or a sequence of events, that has resulted in any of the following occurring directly in connection with the normal operation of a marine vessel: the death of, or serious injury to, a person; the loss of a person from a ship; the loss, presumed loss or abandonment of a marine vessel; material damage to a marine vessel; the stranding or disabling of a marine vessel, or the involvement of a marine vessel in a collision; material damage to the marine infrastructures external to a vessel, that could seriously endanger the safety of the vessel or another vessel or an individual; and severe damage to the environment, or the potential for severe damage to the environment, brought about by the damage of a marine vessel (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019).United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019. Glossary for transport statistics. 5th Edition. Accessed 3 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Statistically agreed definitions for Marine Accident (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019) as follows:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e4df3b5-6ab6-4279-afec-fc80a4713d39","prefLabel":{"en":"Rail Accident"},"altLabel":{"en":["Railroad accident","Train crash,","Train wreck,"]},"definition":{"en":"A rail accident is an unwanted or unintended sudden event or a specific chain of such events (occurring during train operation) which has harmful consequences (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019).United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019. Glossary for transport statistics. 5th Edition. Accessed 30 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Glossary (2019) states that the statistically agreed definitions for Rail Accident are as follows (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019): Category of person in railway accident statistics:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/89190d2a-422c-49ba-9b81-0260a13340d7","prefLabel":{"en":"Road Traffic Accident"},"altLabel":{"en":["Automobile accident,","Car accident,","Car crash","Motor vehicle accident,","Motor vehicle collision,","Road traffic collision,","Traffic accident,"]},"definition":{"en":"A road traffic accident is any accident involving at least one road vehicle in motion on a public road or private road to which the public has right of access, resulting in at least one injured or killed person (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019).United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD, 2019. Glossary for transport statistics. 5th Edition. Accessed 30 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Statistically agreed definitions for road transport accident (United Nations, European Union and the International Transport Forum at the OECD (2019) are as follows: Injury accidents include collisions between road vehicles; between road vehicles and pedestrians; between road vehicles and animals or fixed obstacles and with one road vehicle alone. Included are collisions between road and rail vehicles. Multivehicle collisions are counted as only one accident provided that any successive collisions happen within a very short period. Injury accidents exclude accidents incurring only material damage. Injury accidents exclude terrorist acts."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb5ea51e-68f4-4da9-a6d6-c6c8b6aa4ae3","prefLabel":{"en":"Waste"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d9418efd-c966-4642-93a9-027fa304c501","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster Waste"},"definition":{"en":"Disaster waste is the waste generated by the impact of a disaster, both as a direct effect of the disaster as well as in the post-disaster phase as a result of poor waste management (UNEP/OCHA, 2011).UNEP/OCHA, 2011. Disaster Waste Management Guidelines. Annex X: Terminology. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) / United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster waste includes: concrete, wood, steel, spillage of tailings, industrial toxic and hazardous waste from dumps/stacks/ landfills, clay and tar elements from damaged buildings and infrastructures; household furnishings; parts from the power and telephone grids such as electrical poles, wire, electronic equipment, transformers; parts from water and sewage distribution systems; natural debris such as clay, mud, trees, branches, bushes, palm tree leaves; chemicals, dyes and other raw materials from industries and workshops; waste from relief operations; damaged boats, cars, buses, bicycles; unexploded ordnance (e.g., landmines); waste from disaster settlements and camps including food waste, packaging materials, excreta and other wastes from relief supplies; pesticides and fertilisers; household cleaners; paint, varnish and solvents; and healthcare waste (Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, 2011; UNDP, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7cbe4011-445a-4f2b-a478-687a5022d94b","prefLabel":{"en":"Electronic Waste (E-Waste)"},"altLabel":{"en":["E-scrap","Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE),"]},"definition":{"en":"Electrical and electronic waste, or E-waste, refers to electrical or electronic equipment that is waste, including all components, subassemblies and consumables that are part of the equipment at the time the equipment becomes waste (UNEP, 2019).UNEP, 2019. Technical guidelines on transboundary movements of electrical and electronic waste and used electrical and electronic equipment, in particular regarding the distinction between waste and non-waste under the Basel Convention. (Version of 10 May 2019). United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Accessed 6 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Electrical and electronic waste is classified both as hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste, according to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (UNEP, no date a). It is categorised as hazardous waste when it belongs to any category in Annex I of the Basel Convention unless it does not possess any of the hazardous characteristics included in Annex III to the Convention. For example, e-waste is classified as hazardous waste when it contains toxic substances such as mercury, lead and brominated flame retardants (Basel Convention, 2020). Besides containing recyclable and recoverable metals and materials such as gold, copper, nickel, silver, rare-earths and materials of strategic importance such as indium and palladium, e-waste can contain up to 60 different elements from the period table, including hazardous chemicals, of which some are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (PACE, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b12b96f5-fe4f-468a-9036-cc667c183bab","prefLabel":{"en":"Hazardous Waste"},"definition":{"en":"Hazardous waste is waste that has physical, chemical, or biological characteristics such that it requires special handling and disposal procedures to avoid negative health effects, adverse environmental effects or both (Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, 2011).Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, 2011. Disaster Waste Management Guidelines. Annex X: Terminology. Joint United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) / United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) Environment Unit. Accessed 8 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Typical characteristics of hazardous waste include oxidising, explosive, flammable, irritant, corrosive, toxic, ecotoxic, carcinogenic, infectious, and toxic for reproduction and/or mutagenic properties. Toxic wastes may produce toxic gases when in contact with water, air or acid which can result in the generation of additional hazardous substances following disposal. The term ‘hazardous’ relates to the situation and circumstances as well as to the properties of waste materials (Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, 2011)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/75539fc6-486e-412b-9785-828cd08e51f0","prefLabel":{"en":"Healthcare Risk Waste"},"altLabel":{"en":["Terminology varies across stakeholders:","clinical waste,","hospital waste (Rutala and Mayhall 1992)","medical waste,","regulated medical waste,"]},"definition":{"en":"Healthcare waste includes waste generated within healthcare facilities, research centres and laboratories related to medical procedures and medical equipment. It also includes waste originating from minor and scattered healthcare sources, including waste produced in the course of emergency medical treatment or health care undertaken in the home (e.g., home dialysis, self-administration of insulin, recuperative care) (WHO, 2014).WHO, 2014. Safe management of wastes from health-care activities, 2nd Edition. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 15 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The main sources of medical waste are hospitals, clinics, laboratories, blood banks and mortuaries. Whereas physician’s offices, dental clinics, pharmacies, home-based health care and so on, generate healthcare waste but in smaller amounts (UNGA, 2011)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/38364fd7-0ec5-427b-9763-d2be923141f0","prefLabel":{"en":"Plastic Waste"},"altLabel":{"en":["Plastic debris,","Plastic litter,","Plastic marine litter,","Plastic pollution,","Plastic trash"]},"definition":{"en":"Plastic is a generic term used in the case of polymeric material that may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce costs, with plastic waste almost exclusively comprising one non-halogenated polymer and waste substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law (adapted from Basel Convention, 1989; and Basel Convention Secretariat, 2019).Basel Convention, 1989. Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989). Accessed 18 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Plastic is a lightweight, hygienic and resistant material which can be moulded in a variety of ways and used in a wide range of applications. Unlike metals, plastics do not rust or corrode. Most plastics do not biodegrade, but instead photodegrade, meaning that they slowly break down into small fragments known as microplastics. (UNEP, 2018). The 14th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention defined categories of wastes requiring special consideration (European Commission, 2019). This includes plastic wastes:"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/88ce9e0a-ac4c-4fef-997f-3947bdad3e8f","prefLabel":{"en":"Radioactive Material"},"altLabel":{"en":["Radioactive source,","Radioactive substance,","Radionuclide"]},"definition":{"en":"A substance or a material emitting, or related to the emission of, ionising radiation (either in the form of electromagnetic waves or particle radiation) is radioactive (IAEA, 2018).IAEA, 2018. IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection, 2018 edition. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Accessed 15 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Radioactive materials (natural and human-made) are widely used in industry, medicine and research. There are various types of ionising and non-ionising radiation, each having different characteristics (IAEA, 2021): Depending on the magnitude of exposure, the radioactive substance may become a hazard to human health; as such it is subject to regulatory control by national laws and national regulatory authorities. Radioactive material may also be hazard to animal health, other forms of life and the environment (IAEA, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8007f3cd-024d-4844-9ad8-f10d5c30a258","prefLabel":{"en":"Radioactive Waste"},"altLabel":{"en":["Nuclear waste"]},"definition":{"en":"Radioactive waste is radioactive material for which no further use is foreseen but still contains, or is contaminated with, radionuclides. Radioactive waste can be in gas, liquid or solid form (IAEA, 2018). It may remain radioactive from a few hours to hundreds of thousands of years.N.B. For regulatory purposes radioactive waste is defined as material with activity concentrations greater than the clearance levels set by the regulatory authority (IAEA 2018).Radioactive waste is radioactive material for which no further use is foreseen but still contains, or is contaminated with, radionuclides. Radioactive waste can be in gas, liquid or solid form (IAEA, 2018). It may remain radioactive from a few hours to hundreds of thousands of years.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["It is common regulatory practice to define terms such as radioactive material and radioactive waste to include only material or waste that is subject to regulation by virtue of the radiological hazard that it poses. Although the exact specifications vary from State to State, this typically excludes material and waste with very low concentrations of radionuclides and those that contain only ‘natural’ concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides (IAEA, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb8a3595-e96e-4948-9946-dc712568296b","prefLabel":{"en":"Solid Waste"},"definition":{"en":"Solid waste covers discarded materials that are no longer required by the owner or user. Solid waste includes materials that are in a solid or liquid state but excludes wastewater and small particulate matter released into the atmosphere (United Nations, 2014).United Nations, 2014. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting 2012—Central Framework. Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Solid waste may include such materials as: general domestic garbage such as food waste, ash and packaging materials; human faeces disposed of in garbage; hazardous waste; healthcare waste; and disaster waste. Examples of disaster waste include plastic water bottles, packaging from other emergency supplies and other waste from relief operations, rubble resulting from the disaster, mud and slurry deposited by the disaster, fallen trees and rocks obstructing transport and communications (WHO, 2019). Conceptual and methodological problems of statistics on solid waste have long been identified. They have been discussed by a range of international organisations, such as the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Eurostat, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), and the Basel Convention, but due to the complexity of the subject the issues cannot be addressed by individual organisations separately (UNECE, 2016). Methodological work related to statistics on solid waste is mainly carried out by Eurostat and the UNSD, and by the OECD. It takes into consideration the work of the Secretariat of the Basel Convention on the control of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal (Basel Convention) and the European Commission (Commission Decision 2014/955/EU on the list of waste, Commission Regulation 1357/2014/EU on the hazardousness properties of waste) for hazardous waste, and where necessary of the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (Rotterdam Convention) (UNECE, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3cfe788a-3292-4dfc-8e4b-dfe907af2262","prefLabel":{"en":"Tailings"},"altLabel":{"en":["Extractive waste","Mine waste,","Mining waste,"]},"definition":{"en":"Tailings are a common by-product of the mineral recovery process. They usually take the form of a liquid slurry made of fine mineral particles (created when mined ore is crushed, ground and processed) and water (ICMM, 2019).ICMM, 2019. Tailings management. International Council on Mining and Minerals (ICMM). Accessed 21 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Tailings are the fine-grained waste material remaining after the metals and minerals recoverable with the technical processes applied have been extracted. The material is rejected at the ‘tail end’ of the process with a particle size normally ranging from 10 μm to 1.0 mm (UNECE, 2014:3). Tailings are mixtures of crushed rock and processing fluids from mills, washeries or concentrators that remain after the extraction of economic metals, minerals, mineral fuels or coal from the mine (Kossoff et al., 2014). Tailings are the by-product of several extractive industries, including those for aluminium, coal, oil sands, uranium and precious and base metals (Kossoff et al., 2014). The chemical composition of tailings depends on the mineralogy of the ore body, the nature of the processing fluids used to extract the economic metals, the efficiency of the extraction process and the degree of weathering during storage in the dammed impoundment. Major components usually include such elements as silica also known as silicon dioxide (SiO2), iron (Fe), oxygen (O), aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), sodium (Na), phosphorus (P), titanium (Ti) and sulphur (S) (Kossoff et al., 2014). Tailings may also contain toxic elements such as arsenic (As) or chemical reagents such as cyanide (CN−) which can be toxic in sufficient concentrations (Jewell, 1998). As an example, uranium tailings are radioactive and can retain the majority of the radioactivity of the ore from which they are derived. In parallel, their radioactivity is very long-lived; they contain a range of biotoxic heavy metals and other compounds; they may contain sulphidic minerals and so generate acid mine drainage; their granular to slime constituency makes them readily leachable, erodible or collapsible under different conditions; the common method of surface disposal exposes a large surface area to the natural elements and thus increases the risk releasing radiation flux, radioactive and geochemically toxic dusts, and interaction with surface water systems; and the large surface area of these generally thin tailings deposits (or ‘piles’) adversely affects large areas of land and renders potentially valuable land unfit for other uses (IAEA, 2004:6). Tailings are also of concern due to the danger of tailing dam failures (one of the most common tailings storage methods). Failure of mining dams and the release of toxic waves of material can claim thousands of lives, affect water and sediment quality, fish, terrestrial animal life and plant life, cause irreversible environmental damage, and negatively impact biodiversity and the reputation of the mining industry."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fee392ae-2f86-4bd7-b7dd-39180468e5a5","prefLabel":{"en":"Waste Treatment Lagoons"},"definition":{"en":"Waste [treatment] lagoons can be defined as impoundments made by excavation or earth fill for biological treatment of animal and other agricultural waste (Spellman and Bieber, 2012).Spellman, F.R. and R.M. Bieber, 2012. Environmental Health and Science Desk Reference. Government Institutes, 807.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Effluents from livestock industrial production are commonly discharged into the environment or stored in ‘lagoons’, from which waste may spill or leak into nearby streams and groundwater supplies. Noxious gases escape into the atmosphere, subjecting downwind neighbours to sickening odours and contributing to atmospheric aerosol formation, build-up of greenhouse gases and acid rain (FAO, 2007). The term ‘lagoon’ is often misused, mistakenly including manure storage basins as lagoons (Hamilton et al., 2006). Manure storage basins are not meant to provide significant biological treatment or long storage periods (Livestock and Poultry Environmental Learning Community, 2019). ‘Lagoons’ can be anaerobic, aerobic, naturally-aerobic, mechanically aerated and facultative, depending on their loading and design (Miller et al., 2011). Lagoons rely on physical, chemical, and biological processes to degrade manure (Hamilton et al., 2006; Miller et al., 2011)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fcfdb381-09d8-4b99-aa80-0a96a678f56d","prefLabel":{"en":"Wastewater"},"altLabel":{"en":["Effluent","Used water,"]},"definition":{"en":"Wastewater is regarded as a combination of one or more of the following materials: domestic effluent consisting of ‘blackwater’ (excreta, urine and faecal sludge, contaminants from pharmaceutical and personal care products) and ‘greywater’ (used water from washing and bathing); water from commercial establishments and institutions, including hospitals; industrial effluent, stormwater and other urban runoff; and agricultural, horticultural and aquaculture runoff (UN Water, 2017).UN Water, 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource. Accessed 13 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Insufficient treatment of wastewater and faecal sludge spreads disease and is a driver of antimicrobial resistance (WHO, 2019). Wastewater is also considered to contain increasing amounts and types of unregulated contaminants and organic compounds of emerging concern, such as human and veterinary antibiotics, and prescription and non-prescription drugs (USGS, 2051)."]}}]}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a69922de-bb62-497f-b684-5005c74ac7d3","prefLabel":{"en":"Heinrich event"},"definition":{"en":"Distinct layers of coarse-grained sediments comprised of ice-rafted debris identified across marine sediment cores in the North Atlantic. These sedimentary layers are closely associated with millennial-scale cooling events in the North Atlantic and a distinct pattern of global temperature and hydrological changes that are largely consistent with evidence for a slowdown, or even near-collapse, of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) during these times."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cfed88a7-9b1c-494d-9d22-0d53f77b5805","prefLabel":{"en":"Hepatitis A (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Hepatitis A is an acute vaccine-preventable viral liver disease caused by the hepatitis A virus. The infection can cause mild to severe illness and is epidemic prone (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Hepatitis A. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The hepatitis A virus (HAV) is primarily spread when an uninfected and unvaccinated person ingests food or water that is contaminated with the faeces of an infected person. It is one of the most frequent causes of foodborne infection. There are also outbreaks among men who have sex with men and persons who inject drugs (ECDC, 2017). The symptoms of hepatitis A can include fever, malaise, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, nausea, abdominal discomfort, darkcoloured urine and jaundice (a yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes). Not everyone who is infected will have all of the symptoms. Hepatitis A does not cause chronic liver disease and is rarely fatal, but it can cause debilitating symptoms. In very rare instances it can cause acute liver failure, which is often fatal (WHO, 2020a). Specific diagnosis is made by the detection of HAV-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies in the blood. Additional tests include reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect the hepatitis A virus RNA and may require specialised laboratory facilities (WHO, 2020b). Epidemics related to contaminated food or water can erupt explosively, such as the epidemic in Shanghai in 1988 that affected about 300,000 people. Epidemics can also be prolonged, affecting communities for months through person-to-person transmission. Hepatitis A viruses persist in the environment and can withstand food-production processes routinely used to inactivate and/or control bacterial pathogens (WHO, 2020b). Hepatitis A can lead to significant economic and social consequences in communities. It can take weeks or months for people recovering from the illness to return to work, school, or daily life. The impact on food establishments identified with the virus, and local productivity in general, can be substantial (WHO, 2020b). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8fdfdf30-6fd0-4c21-b06d-5bb02aeb1fe2","prefLabel":{"en":"Hepatitis C (human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Acute hepatitis C,","Chronic hepatitis C,","Hepatitis C-related cirrhosis and liver cancer"]},"definition":{"en":"Hepatitis C is a blood-borne liver disease caused by the hepatitis C virus: the virus can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, ranging in severity from a mild illness lasting a few weeks to a serious, lifelong illness including liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. Hepatitis C is endemic and epidemic worldwide (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Hepatitis C. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The most common modes of infection of hepatitis C are through exposure to small quantities of blood. This may happen through injecting drug use, unsafe injection practices, unsafe health care, transfusion of unscreened blood and blood products, and sexual practices that lead to exposure to blood. The incubation period for hepatitis C ranges from two weeks to six months (WHO, 2020). New hepatitis C infections (approximately 80%) are usually asymptomatic. Those persons who are acutely symptomatic may exhibit fever, fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, grey-coloured faeces, joint pain and jaundice (yellowing of skin and the whites of the eyes). Around 30% (15–45%) of infected persons spontaneously clear the virus within six months of infection without any treatment. The remaining 70% (55–85%) of persons will develop chronic hepatitis C infection. Of those with chronic hepatitis C infection, a significant number will go on to develop cirrhosis (liver scarring) or liver cancer (WHO, 2020). There is no effective vaccine against hepatitis C; prevention of hepatitis C infection depends upon reducing the risk of exposure to the hepatitis C virus (HCV) in health-care settings and in higher risk populations such as people who inject drugs and men who have sex with other men, particularly those infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or those who are taking pre-exposure prophylaxis against HIV (WHO, 2020). Hepatitis C infection is diagnosed in two steps: testing for anti-HCV antibodies with a serological test to identify people who have been infected with the virus; and, if the test is positive for anti-HCV antibodies, a nucleic acid test for HCV ribonucleic acid (RNA) to confirm chronic infection, because those without viral RNA also test positive for anti-HCV antibodies (WHO, 2020). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published surveillance standards for hepatitis C (WHO, 2016a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9cb1459e-0e4b-47b9-9d39-b1fbe2abec87","prefLabel":{"en":"Holocene"},"definition":{"en":"The current interglacial geological epoch, the second of two epochs within the Quaternary Period, the preceding being the Pleistocene. The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) defines the start of the Holocene Epoch at 11,700 years before 2000 (Walker et al., 2019). It encompasses the mid-Holocene (MH), the 1000-year-long interval centred at 6000 years before 1950; a period of long-standing focus for climate modelling, with enhanced seasonality in the Northern Hemisphere and decreased seasonality in the Southern Hemisphere. The early part of the Holocene is marked by the late stages of deglaciation of Pleistocene land ice, sea level rise, and the occurrence of warm phases that affected different regions at different times, often referred to as the ‘Holocene Thermal Maximum’. In addition, the epoch includes the post-glacial interval, which began approximately 7000 years ago when the fundamental features of the modern climate system were essentially in place, as the influence of remnant Pleistocene ice sheets waned."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba9243f2-884e-4505-8169-2b662be52d34","prefLabel":{"en":"Human behaviour"},"definition":{"en":"The responses of persons or groups to a particular situation, here likely to relate to climate change. Human behaviour covers the range of actions by individuals, communities, organisations, governments and at the international level."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c386e41b-c37a-4ba1-b8d8-2f87bf1bae29","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation behaviour"},"definition":{"en":"Human actions that directly or indirectly affect the risks of climate change impacts."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ebe8e418-34db-4152-b841-1506682132b8","prefLabel":{"en":"Human influence on the climate system"},"definition":{"en":"Human-driven activities that lead to changes in the climate system due to perturbations of the Earth’s energy budget (also called anthropogenic forcing). Human influence results from emissions of greenhouse gases, aerosols, ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), and land-use change."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1433cd66-1be5-4504-a7c2-90003da60b31","prefLabel":{"en":"Human rights"},"definition":{"en":"Rights that are inherent to all human beings, universal, inalienable, and indivisible, typically expressed and guaranteed by law. They include the right to life, economic, social, and cultural rights, and the right to development and self-determination (UNOHCHR, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/56702180-46ff-42a9-8932-fae079812328","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)"},"definition":{"en":"A type of greenhouse gas (GHG), HFCs are organic compounds that contain fluorine, carbon and hydrogen atoms and they are produced commercially as a substitute for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They are mainly used in refrigeration and semiconductor manufacturing."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a3a16e5f-7367-4503-b4b2-6853689a2e16","prefLabel":{"en":"hydrogen energy"},"altLabel":{"en":["hydrogen electric","renewable hydrogen"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c30922b0-c372-4167-85ad-76db63db6450","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydropower"},"definition":{"en":"Power harnessed from the flow of water."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0dac020f-b5d0-45d0-9b87-783a7258dff6","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydrosphere"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ocean and hydrosphere"]},"definition":{"en":"The component of the climate system comprising liquid surface and subterranean water, such as in oceans, seas, rivers, freshwater lakes, underground water, wetlands, etc."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fea7d9c0-13c5-4b06-974c-74152d879cfc","prefLabel":{"en":"Advection"},"definition":{"en":"Transport of water or air along with its properties (e.g., temperature, chemical tracers) by winds or currents. Regarding the general distinction between advection and convection, the former describes transport by large-scale motions of the atmosphere or ocean, while convection describes the predominantly vertical, locally induced motions (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/901f3fc0-4fae-42c1-826c-1f32adb77c3c","prefLabel":{"en":"Alkalinity"},"definition":{"en":"Seawater acid–base system."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/44ddf8af-212e-477e-98fc-28d01d9e6f60","prefLabel":{"en":"Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO)"},"definition":{"en":"A multi-decadal (65- to 75-year) fluctuation in the North Atlantic, in which sea surface temperatures showed warm phases during roughly 1860 to 1880 and 1930 to 1960 and cool phases during 1905 to 1925 and 1970 to 1990 with a range of approximately 0.4°C. See AMO Index in WGI AR5 Box 2.5."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e23c10cf-12f8-4999-b829-c9100ceac549","prefLabel":{"en":"Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability (AMV)"},"definition":{"en":"Large-scale fluctuations observed from one decade to the next in a variety of instrumental records and proxy reconstructions over the entire North Atlantic ocean and surrounding continents. Fingerprints of AMV can be found at the surface ocean, which is characterized by swings in basin-scale sea surface temperature anomalies reflecting the interaction with the atmosphere. The positive phase of the AMV is characterized by anomalous warming over the entire North Atlantic, with the strongest amplitude in the subpolar gyre and along sea-ice margin zones in the Labrador Sea and Greenland/Barents Sea and in the subtropical North Atlantic basin to a lower extent. In the AR6 WGI report, the term AMV is preferred to Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) used in previous IPCC reports because there is no preferred time scale of decadal variability as the term oscillation would indirectly imply. See Section AIV.2.7 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/870d0c4f-7fe0-42e8-a232-bd62ba62b969","prefLabel":{"en":"Autotrophic respiration"},"definition":{"en":"Bodies of water, watercourses, ponds, lakes and storm drainage, that provide ecological and hydrological functions including evaporation, transpiration, drainage, infiltration and temporary storage of runoff and discharge."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/399c7d0e-255e-4aeb-a276-dd1a2c265c36","prefLabel":{"en":"Carbonate pump"},"definition":{"en":"Ocean carbon fixation through the biological formation of carbonates, primarily by plankton that generate bio-mineral particles that sink to the ocean interior, and possibly the sediment. It is also called carbonate counter-pump, since the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) to surrounding water and subsequently to the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9fe77923-028e-4d76-97ae-d914bcc418ff","prefLabel":{"en":"Catchment"},"definition":{"en":"An area that collects and drains precipitation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/15ae75fb-b3d1-4bee-925f-2e7ae6291cb4","prefLabel":{"en":"Dead zones"},"definition":{"en":"Extremely hypoxic (i.e., low-oxygen) areas in oceans and lakes, caused by excessive nutrient input from human activities coupled with other factors that deplete the oxygen required to support many marine organisms in bottom and near-bottom water."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7b74737a-9279-4dc3-afa7-4c68fac6f38f","prefLabel":{"en":"Dissolved inorganic carbon"},"definition":{"en":"The combined total of different types of non-organic carbon in (seawater) solution, comprising carbonate (CO32–), bicarbonate (HCO3–), carbonic acid (H2CO3) and carbon dioxide (CO2)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7c4de168-1d34-4e0c-bcc9-63e8234a2ed9","prefLabel":{"en":"Eastern boundary upwelling systems (EBUS)"},"definition":{"en":"Eastern boundary upwelling systems (EBUS) are located at the eastern (landward) edges of major ocean basins in both hemispheres, where equatorward winds drive upwelling currents that bring cool, nutrient-rich (and often oxygen-poor) waters from the deep ocean to the surface near the coast."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a6412353-5c97-482d-8d8d-67155f627f6b","prefLabel":{"en":"Ekman transport"},"definition":{"en":"The total transport resulting from a balance between the Coriolis force and the frictional stress due to the action of the wind on the ocean surface."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/043489bd-7992-419d-a7bc-c316139d28d7","prefLabel":{"en":"Evaporation"},"definition":{"en":"The physical process by which a liquid (e.g., water) becomes a gas (e.g., water vapour)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5c122d06-97a6-4c13-ad67-cf89a4ac6531","prefLabel":{"en":"Evapotranspiration"},"definition":{"en":"The combined processes through which water is transferred to the atmosphere from open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation that make up the Earth’s surface."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b3d113b3-ffff-4ee5-9035-1277be8c08aa","prefLabel":{"en":"Flow rate"},"definition":{"en":"The rate at which water or another fluid moves through a system, such as a river basin or glacier melt stream, often in response to climatic variables. This is crucial in modeling runoff, glacier melt, and flood risk under different climate scenarios (IPCC, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2ad3df13-0f8c-4d2d-9429-702abf63b64b","prefLabel":{"en":"Flux"},"definition":{"en":"A movement (a flow) of matter (e.g., water vapour, particles), heat or energy from one place to another, or from one medium (e.g., land surface) to another (e.g., atmosphere)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0a515959-b19a-4610-a46f-f4305ce9cf5d","prefLabel":{"en":"Groundwater recharge"},"definition":{"en":"The process by which external water is added to the zone of saturation of an aquifer, either directly into a geologic formation that traps the water or indirectly by way of another formation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/34c3be90-4d44-4dde-beba-ff5f5327a9f4","prefLabel":{"en":"Gyre"},"definition":{"en":"Basin-scale ocean horizontal circulation pattern with slow flow circulating around the ocean basin, closed by a strong and narrow (100 to 200 km wide) boundary current on the western side. The subtropical gyres in each ocean are associated with high pressure in the centre of the gyres; the subpolar gyres are associated with low pressure."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e0a8903-0a07-4804-a4b6-919a30f40c52","prefLabel":{"en":"Halocline"},"definition":{"en":"A layer in the oceanic water column in which salinity changes rapidly with depth. Generally, saltier water is denser and lies below less salty water. In some high-latitude oceans the surface waters may be colder than the deep waters, and the halocline is responsible for maintaining water column stability and isolating the surface waters from the deep waters."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e38d6219-e741-46e2-97ae-afb7723fed8f","prefLabel":{"en":"Halosteric"},"definition":{"en":"Density changes induced by temperature changes only are called thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are called halosteric."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6e474569-9a1c-4372-a450-9ca14a8ca86e","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydroclimate"},"definition":{"en":"Part of the climate pertaining to the hydrology of a region."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/30a1d8e4-b384-4a5d-957f-7bdfcb559b07","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydrological cycle"},"definition":{"en":"The cycle in which water evaporates from the ocean and the land surface, is carried over the Earth in atmospheric circulation as water vapour, condenses to form clouds, precipitates over the ocean and land as rain or snow, which on land can be intercepted by trees and vegetation, potentially accumulating as snow or ice, provides runoff on the land surface, infiltrates into soils, recharges groundwater, discharges into streams, and ultimately, flows into the oceans as rivers, polar glaciers and ice sheets, from which it will eventually evaporate again. The various systems involved in the hydrological cycle are usually referred to as hydrological systems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/21b89464-df5f-478f-9143-acd3f8e6a342","prefLabel":{"en":"Hypoxic"},"definition":{"en":"Conditions of low dissolved oxygen in shallow water ocean and freshwater environments. There is no universal threshold for hypoxia. A value around 60 μmol kg–1 has commonly been used for some estuarine systems, although this does not necessarily directly translate into biological impacts. Anoxic conditions occur where there is no oxygen present at all."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a4b8b20a-693d-4b78-be48-e5ce8f05983a","prefLabel":{"en":"Infiltration capacity"},"definition":{"en":"The maximum rate at which soils and rocks can absorb rainfall. The infiltration capacity tends to decrease as the soil moisture content of the surface layers increases. It also depends upon such factors as grain size and vegetation cover (A Dictionary of Ecology, 2015)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/386dd141-ddee-4417-bab7-05b06e1b4cb6","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine isotope stage (MIS)"},"definition":{"en":"Geological periods of alternating glacial and interglacial conditions, each typically lasting tens of thousands of years as inferred from the oxygen isotope composition of microfossils from deep sea sediment cores. MIS numbers increase back in time from the present, which is MIS 1. Even-number MISs coincide with glacial periods, and odd-numbered MISs are interglacials."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/30f6ebfd-51bc-4908-ad18-ebdca17a7878","prefLabel":{"en":"Meridional overturning circulation (MOC)"},"definition":{"en":"Meridional (north–south) overturning circulation in the ocean quantified by zonal (east–west) sums of mass transports in depth or density layers. In the North Atlantic, away from the subpolar regions, the MOC (which is in principle an observable quantity) is often identified with the thermohaline circulation (THC), which is a conceptual and incomplete interpretation. The MOC is also driven by wind, and can also include shallower overturning cells such as occur in the upper ocean in the tropics and subtropics, in which warm (light) waters moving poleward are transformed to slightly denser waters and subducted equatorward at deeper levels."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/977dd197-a412-429b-91fe-1ee54ae6a3a0","prefLabel":{"en":"Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)"},"definition":{"en":"The main current system in the South and North Atlantic Oceans. AMOC transports warm upper-ocean water northwards and cold, deep water southwards, as part of the global ocean circulation system. Changes in the strength of AMOC can affect other components of the climate system."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/523f02b8-c7a3-4dd6-b85c-3dfd45ae855e","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean"},"definition":{"en":"The interconnected body of saline water that covers 71% of the Earth’s surface, contains 97% of the Earth’s water and provides 99% of the Earth’s biologically habitable space. It includes the Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and Southern Oceans, as well as their marginal seas and coastal waters."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5cb4e5a5-efc7-4110-84be-a77e112a5faa","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean acidification (OA)"},"definition":{"en":"Ocean acidification refers to a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period, which is caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and can also be caused by other chemical additions or subtractions from the ocean (IPCC, 2011).IPCC, 2011. IPCC Workshop on Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Biology and Ecosystems. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Accessed 1 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The ocean absorbs around 30% of carbon dioxide (CO2) released to the atmosphere as a result of human activities. As CO2 dissolves in seawater, it alters the carbonate chemistry of the seawater, resulting in a fall in pH and accompanying declines in dissolved carbonate ion concentration and an increase in the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) as well as an increase in the concentration of dissolved bicarbonate ions. The decrease in the concentration of dissolved carbonate ions lowers the saturation state of biogenic forms of calcium carbonate minerals, including calcite and aragonite (IPCC, 2019; UNESCO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/76fb5de6-6f4c-42aa-92f7-09e131f58ab7","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean alkalinization/Ocean alkalinity enhancement"},"definition":{"en":"A proposed carbon dioxide removal (CDR) method that involves deposition of alkaline minerals or their dissociation products at the ocean surface. This increases surface total alkalinity, and may thus increase ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake and ameliorate surface ocean acidification."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bfbbaa23-5efc-413e-81a6-139a226217a9","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean carbon cycle"},"definition":{"en":"The ocean carbon cycle is the set of processes that exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean, as well as between the atmosphere, Earth’s interior, cryosphere, and the sea-floor."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9b117356-4016-4cab-9494-49088abd53e3","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean deoxygenation"},"definition":{"en":"The loss of oxygen in the ocean. It results from ocean warming, which reduces oxygen solubility and increases oxygen consumption and stratification, thereby reducing the mixing of oxygen into the ocean interior. Deoxygenation can also be exacerbated by the addition of excess nutrients in the coastal zone."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3cfbfa44-aa20-4e66-a65b-5ec9f31c84b1","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean fertilisation"},"definition":{"en":"A proposed carbon dioxide removal (CDR) method that relies on the deliberate increase of nutrient supply to the near-surface ocean with the aim of sequestering additional CO2 from the atmosphere through biological production. Methods include direct addition of micro-nutrients or macro-nutrients. To be successful, the additional carbon needs to reach the deep ocean where it has the potential to be sequestered on climatically relevant time scales."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1ef6cbf9-3647-478c-b390-f9c1a5b08a11","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean heat uptake efficiency"},"definition":{"en":"This is a measure (W m–2 °C–1) of the rate at which heat storage by the global ocean increases as global surface temperature rises. It is a useful parameter for climate change simulations in which the radiative forcing is changing monotonically, when it can be compared with the climate feedback parameter to gauge the relative importance of radiative response and ocean heat uptake in determining the rate of climate change. It can be estimated from such an experiment as the ratio of the rate of increase of ocean heat content to the surface temperature change."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/98b392ce-37fd-4004-a089-36cf968f7567","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean stratification"},"definition":{"en":"Process of forming of layers of ocean water with different properties such as salinity, density and temperature that act as barriers to water mixing. The strengthening of near-surface stratification generally results in warmer surface waters, decreased oxygen levels in deeper water and intensification of ocean acidification (OA) in the upper ocean."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d98cff0a-8f77-4609-8525-ad5b7335eda5","prefLabel":{"en":"Oxygen minimum zone (OMZ)"},"definition":{"en":"The midwater layer (200–1000 m) in the open ocean in which oxygen saturation is the lowest in the ocean. The degree of oxygen depletion depends on the largely bacterial consumption of organic matter, and the distribution of the OMZs is influenced by large-scale ocean circulation. In coastal oceans, OMZs extend to the shelves and may also affect benthic ecosystems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/66efb4dd-0274-4c26-bca8-62e63dafb40e","prefLabel":{"en":"Pelagic"},"definition":{"en":"The pelagic zone consists of the entire water column of the open ocean. It is subdivided into the epipelagic zone (<200 m, the uppermost part of the ocean that receives enough sunlight to allow photosynthesis), the mesopelagic zone (200–1000 m depth) and the bathypelagic zone (>1000 m depth). The term ‘pelagic’ can also refer to organisms that live in the pelagic zone."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/05125502-f4b4-4872-9109-6ca5fe9b0650","prefLabel":{"en":"Pelagos"},"definition":{"en":"Organisms large and small living in the pelagic zones. Includes plankton (small) and nekton (free swimming, large). See Benthos."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9210c0e2-d06f-44c8-bd1f-636e6f51093a","prefLabel":{"en":"Runoff"},"definition":{"en":"The flow of water over the surface or through the subsurface, which typically originates from the part of liquid precipitation and/or snow/ice melt that does not evaporate, transpire or refreeze, and returns to water bodies."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4d46616c-7e79-4af0-b350-2656422e2c61","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea surface temperature (SST)"},"definition":{"en":"The subsurface bulk temperature in the top few metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. From ships, measurements of water samples in buckets were mostly switched in the 1940s to samples from engine intake water. Satellite measurements of skin temperature (uppermost layer; a fraction of a millimetre thick) in the infrared or the top centimetre or so in the microwave are also used, but must be adjusted to be compatible with the bulk temperature."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6e94e64d-2293-4b3f-aa84-eb9a15132a29","prefLabel":{"en":"Shelf seas"},"definition":{"en":"Relatively shallow water covering the shelf of continents or around islands. The limit of shelf seas is conventionally considered as 200 m water depth at the continental shelf edge, where there is usually a steep slope to the deep ocean floor. During glacial periods, most shelf seas are lost since they become land as the build-up of ice sheets caused a decrease of global sea level."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a4499364-d6eb-49be-8559-df1613fd07f4","prefLabel":{"en":"Solubility pump"},"definition":{"en":"A physicochemical process that transports dissolved inorganic carbon from the ocean’s surface to its interior. The solubility pump is primarily driven by the solubility of carbon dioxide (CO2) (with more CO2 dissolving in colder water) and the large-scale, thermohaline patterns of ocean circulation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f6a119a7-3748-4a68-9c7a-35f45b5145ad","prefLabel":{"en":"Southern Ocean"},"definition":{"en":"The ocean region encircling Antarctica that connects the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans together, allowing inter-ocean exchange. This region is the main source of much of the deep water of the world’s ocean and also provides the primary return pathway for this deep water to the surface (Marshall and Speer, 2012; Toggweiler and Samuels, 1995). The drawing up of deep waters and the subsequent transport into the ocean interior has major consequences for the global heat, nutrient and carbon balances, as well as the Antarctic cryosphere and marine ecosystems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6b88db94-aaf4-4f2e-9ac6-acbb2c110e8d","prefLabel":{"en":"Stratification"},"definition":{"en":"Process of forming of layers of (ocean) water with different properties such as salinity, density and temperature that act as barriers for water mixing. The strengthening of near-surface stratification generally results in warmer surface waters, decreased oxygen levels in deeper water and intensification of ocean acidification (OA) in the upper ocean."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/82771ca3-058f-467c-84dc-5d8cd4f66ac1","prefLabel":{"en":"Streamflow"},"definition":{"en":"Water flow within a river channel, for example, expressed in m3 s–1. A synonym for river discharge."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2b20cb6b-6818-4d30-96c0-7807bd9a52f6","prefLabel":{"en":"Swash"},"definition":{"en":"Vertical displacement up the shore-face induced by individual waves."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0bc8bba7-dae9-4bb2-8569-04a2f1c89c10","prefLabel":{"en":"Thermocline"},"definition":{"en":"The layer of maximum vertical temperature gradient in the ocean, lying between the surface ocean and the abyssal ocean. In subtropical regions, its source waters are typically surface waters at higher latitudes that have subducted (see Subduction) and moved equatorward. At high latitudes, it is sometimes absent, replaced by a halocline, which is a layer of maximum vertical salinity gradient."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4baabb03-8710-4d80-b682-11530e76ef38","prefLabel":{"en":"Total water level"},"definition":{"en":"Extreme total water level (ETWL) is the Extreme still water level (ESWL) plus wave setup. When considering coastal impacts, swash is also important, and Extreme coastal water level (ECWL) is used."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/306b932c-cb9e-4b0b-a6cb-724762cbee25","prefLabel":{"en":"Upwelling region"},"definition":{"en":"A region of an ocean where cold, typically nutrient-rich waters well up from the deep ocean."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e6e8fe9b-a4c0-48b7-a1e3-0ca8df84a837","prefLabel":{"en":"Ventilation (ocean)"},"definition":{"en":"The exchange of ocean properties with the atmospheric surface layer such that property concentrations are brought closer to equilibrium values with the atmosphere (AMS, 2000), and the processes that propagate these properties into the ocean interior."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/efa75c32-c5f9-4c35-bc3f-c860a6d5a5dc","prefLabel":{"en":"Water cycle"},"definition":{"en":"The cycle in which water evaporates from the ocean and the land surface, is carried over the Earth in atmosphericcirculation as water vapour, condenses to form clouds, precipitates over the ocean and land as rain or snow, which on land can be intercepted by trees and vegetation, potentially accumulating as snow or ice, provides runoff on the land surface, infiltrates into soils, recharges groundwater, discharges into streams, and ultimately, flows into the oceans as rivers, polar glaciers and ice sheets, from which it will eventually evaporate again. The various systems involved in thehydrological cycle are usually referred to as hydrological systems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6bc07161-31e0-47cf-9490-8b36d04317b5","prefLabel":{"en":"Water mass"},"definition":{"en":"A body of ocean water with identifiable properties (temperature, salinity, density, chemical tracers) resulting from its unique formation process. Water masses are often identified through a vertical or horizontal extremum of a property such as salinity. North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW) and Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) are examples of water masses."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/361114bd-3d77-42e4-b878-717640251169","prefLabel":{"en":"Wave setup"},"definition":{"en":"Time-mean sea level elevation due to wave energy dissipation."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/95a7262d-434e-4131-901f-01a769639630","prefLabel":{"en":"Hyperthermal events"},"definition":{"en":"Geologically abrupt global warming events of the past associated with disturbances of the carbon cycle and impacts on the biosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f5e6691a-af3b-497a-b3b0-061e0ec3ede1","prefLabel":{"en":"Hypothesis"},"definition":{"en":"A hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between variables that can be tested through research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).\n\nSource: Creswell and Creswell (2018).. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/78f01d55-334b-4c88-8a1a-6639c53187e2","prefLabel":{"en":"Hypsometry"},"definition":{"en":"The distribution of land or ice surface as a function of altitude."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/affa52fc-b12e-443d-8710-33250d80e9eb","prefLabel":{"en":"Impacts"},"definition":{"en":"The consequences of realised risks on natural and human systems, where risks result from the interactions of climate-related hazards (including extreme weather/climate events), exposure, and vulnerability. Impacts generally refer to effects on lives, livelihoods, health and well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, services (including ecosystem services), and infrastructure. Impacts may be referred to as consequences or outcomes, and can be adverse or beneficial (IPCC, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eb2c131d-e0a8-48a1-9bea-bd765615ae4d","prefLabel":{"en":"(climate change) Impact assessment"},"definition":{"en":"The practice of identifying and evaluating, in monetary and/or non-monetary terms, the effects of climate change on natural and human systems (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d1fd9b71-e3f3-4c79-ace4-f6dde3e1ecde","prefLabel":{"en":"Attribution"},"definition":{"en":"Attribution is defined as the process of evaluating the relative contributions of multiple causal factors to a change or event with an assessment of confidence."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ad0f0538-f168-4c67-afce-dc9598155cde","prefLabel":{"en":"Cascading impacts"},"definition":{"en":"Cascading impacts from extreme weather/climate events occur when an extreme hazard generates a sequence of secondary events in natural and human systems that result in physical, natural, social or economic disruption, whereby the resulting impact is significantly larger than the initial impact. Cascading impacts are complex and multi-dimensional, and are associated more with the magnitude of vulnerability than with that of the hazard (modified from Pescaroli and Alexander, 2015) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Cascading impacts occur when impacts in one or more parts of an interconnected system may trigger impacts in other parts of the system. For example, a flood can cause direct damages to buildings, but also have knock-on effects on people’s mental health, on business continuity and on supply chains (CCRA3 Technical Team, 2021)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0914a46-c1d4-445d-b5fc-cf24218fb4fe","prefLabel":{"en":"Diminishing cascade"},"definition":{"en":"The inverse of the escalating cascade, where each subsequent impact propagated in a cascade is dampened or reduced compared to the previous one. Using a similar supply chain example, fixed prices may be built-in to contracts between retailers and suppliers, hence safeguarding prices for recipient consumers but also implying that suppliers would absorb any additional costs (potentially exposing them to increased impacts) (Carter et al., 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/59a9d753-5ce4-489e-addb-715319eed174","prefLabel":{"en":"Escalating cascade"},"definition":{"en":"Characterises cases in which impacts are being transmitted in a cascade from one system component to another, with each subsequent impact amplified compared to the previous one. For instance, this kind of situation can sometimes arise in supply chains following a climate-induced shortfall in a commodity, a rise in price that subsequently provokes an over-reaction such as panic buying, stockpiling or market intervention that drives up the price of the commodity even further than the original situation might have merited (Carter et al., 2021)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ab7e2d30-0858-47a2-b4c6-ec48cae543cb","prefLabel":{"en":"Compound impacts"},"altLabel":{"en":["Compound impact"]},"definition":{"en":"Compound impacts can be realised in different ways. One variant is where initial impacts occur concurrently at two different locations and are propagated through separate impact transmission systems before converging to affect the same recipient human or natural asset at risk. For example, a drought in one location affects the supply and price of hydroelectric power whilst a heatwave at another location affects the cooling capacity, supply and price for water-cooled nuclear power, with both sources contributing to the overall cost of electricity for a recipient consumer. Another variant might involve climate impacts of one type that may induce impacts of another type (e.g., a drought may predispose a region to crop failure, with implications for food security in a recipient region, but may also induce wildfires, leading to cross-border smoke pollution that can aggravate health problems in the same recipient region) (Carter et al., 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5fbad513-22fc-4d6c-b0b0-74345f1ca633","prefLabel":{"en":"Cross-border impacts"},"altLabel":{"en":["Transboundary climate impacts"]},"definition":{"en":"Cross-border climate change impacts can be defined as consequences of climate change, either positive or negative, that occur remotely from the location of their initial impact, where both impacts, and potentially also responses to those impacts such as adaptation, are transmitted across one or more borders. The potential consequence therefore constitutes a risk in a region of interest that is remote from the location of the initial impact (Carter et al., 2021).\nThe mechanisms via which climate impacts cross borders can be various; they include physical flows such as impacts on the quality or availability of traded commodities, as well as information flows, such as price effects (Benzie et al., 2019)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["While not defined in the IPCC glossary, cross-border impacts are referred to as 'cross regional phenomena' in IPCC AR5, requiring 'knowledge of critical but geographically remote associations and of dynamic crossboundary flows' (Hewitson et al., 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4bedb0cb-aea5-47ed-b8fe-c4d0c7c75430","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster impact"},"definition":{"en":"The total effect, including negative effects (e.g., economic losses) and positive effects (e.g., economic gains), of a hazardous event or a disaster. The term includes economic, human and environmental impacts, and may include death, injuries, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well-being (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7ec87824-4796-4526-8917-cd1824eab8da","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster damage"},"definition":{"en":"Disaster damage occurs during and immediately after the disaster. This is usually measured in physical units (e.g., square meters of housing, kilometres of roads, etc.), and describes the total or partial destruction of physical assets, the disruption of basic services and damages to sources of livelihood in the affected area (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2b81a4dc-4fd6-453b-b88c-cf52b494ceb4","prefLabel":{"en":"Ecosystem impacts"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c9257a18-83ae-4f22-b7c2-463a99485b59","prefLabel":{"en":"Biodiversity Loss"},"definition":{"en":"Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction of any aspect of biological diversity (i.e., diversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels) in a particular area through death (including extinction), destruction or manual removal; it can refer to many scales, from global extinctions to population extinctions, resulting in decreased total diversity at the same scale (IPBES, no date).IPBES, no date. Glossary: Biodiversity loss. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Accessed 20 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Human actions currently threaten more species with global extinction than ever before. An average of around 25% of species in assessed animal and plant groups are threatened, suggesting that around 1 million species already face extinction, many within decades, unless action is taken to reduce the intensity of drivers of biodiversity loss. Without such action, there will be a further acceleration in the global rate of species extinction, which is already at least tens to hundreds of times higher than it has averaged over the past 10 million years (IPBES, 2019:11-12)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e5a30a45-e9e1-4632-8ff8-e0fc05419e2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Coral bleaching"},"definition":{"en":"Corals are subject to ‘bleaching’ when the seawater temperature is too high: they lose the symbiotic algae that give coral its colour and part of its nutrients. Severe, prolonged or repeated bleaching can lead to the death of coral colonies (United Nations, 2017).United Nations, 2017. The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment I. Cambridge University Press. Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Coral bleaching was a relatively unknown phenomenon until the early 1980s, when a series of local bleaching events occurred, principally in the eastern tropical Pacific and Wider Caribbean regions. Severe, prolonged or repeated bleaching can lead to the death of coral colonies. An increase of only 1°C to 2°C above the normal local seasonal maximum can induce bleaching. Although most coral species are susceptible to bleaching, their thermal tolerance varies. Many heat-stressed or bleached corals subsequently die from coral diseases (United Nations, 2017). Increasingly frequent severe coral bleaching is among the greatest threats to coral reefs posed by climate change. Global climate models project great spatial variation in the timing of annual severe bleaching conditions; a point at which reefs are certain to change and recovery will be limited (UNEP, 2017). Warmer water temperatures can result in coral bleaching. When water is too warm, corals will expel the algae (zooxanthellae) living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white. This is called coral bleaching. When a coral bleaches, it is not dead. Corals can survive a bleaching event, but they are under more stress and are subject to mortality (NOAA, no date a). In 2005, the USA lost half of its coral reefs in the Caribbean in one year due to a massive bleaching event. The warm waters centred around the northern Antilles near the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico and extended southward. Comparison of satellite data from the previous 20 years confirmed that thermal stress from the 2005 event was greater than the previous 20 years combined (NOAA, no date a). There is great spatial variation in the timing of annual severe bleaching conditions; a point at which reefs are certain to change and recovery will be limited. The onset of annual severe coral bleaching is defined as the annual exceedance of more than eight degree-heating weeks accumulating during any three-month period. With more than eight weeks with an extra degree of heat it is possible to have confidence that thermal stress will be enough for bleaching to occur (van Hooidonk et al., 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ddead2a3-5160-473c-a7db-e3eb5d9c62d4","prefLabel":{"en":"Ecosystem health"},"definition":{"en":"Ecosystem health is a metaphor used to describe the condition of an ecosystem, by analogy with human health. Note that there is no universally accepted benchmark for a healthy ecosystem. Rather, the apparent health status of an ecosystem is judged on the ecosystem’s resilience to change, with details depending upon which metrics are employed in judging it and which societal aspirations are driving the assessment (following IPBES 2019) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Healthy ecosystems can also be viewed as synonymous with 'sustainable ecosystems', which can be defined as those that are largely intact and functioning, and on which human demand for ecosystem services does not impinge upon the capacity of them to maintain future generations (SudmeierRieux and Ash, 2009 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0f86e92a-ebff-4e96-b6da-82c013aeb62c","prefLabel":{"en":"Extinction"},"definition":{"en":"A population, species or more inclusive taxonomic group has gone extinct when all its individuals have died. A species may go extinct locally (population extinction), regionally (e.g., extinction of all populations in a country, continent or ocean) or globally (IPBES, 2019)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0fff0f58-7f45-4380-bed3-6941e038deaa","prefLabel":{"en":"Local extinction"},"definition":{"en":"See extirpation"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ef28d0a7-4a9a-44f7-8d9e-c2d9514103c0","prefLabel":{"en":"Extirpation"},"definition":{"en":"The disappearance of a species from an area, sometimes also referred to as local extinction. Its use implies that the species still occurs elsewhere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/393411a9-5ec0-4ca6-8c9b-eb20ec22de4b","prefLabel":{"en":"Insect Pest Infestations"},"altLabel":{"en":["Outbreak","Invasion","Plague","Swarm"]},"definition":{"en":"An insect pest infestation is a recently detected insect pest population, including an incursion, or a sudden significant increase of an established insect, disease agents or weed population in an area leading to damage to plants in production fields, forests or natural habitats and causing substantial damage to productivity, biodiversity or natural resources (adapted from FAO, 2019).FAO, 2019. Glossary of phytosanitary terms. International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures No. 5. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 11 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Insects are responsible for significant losses to the world’s total crop production annually. Not all insects are pests, but many are harmful to crops, forest trees, livestock and humans. One major reason for the occurrence of these pests is the expansion of monocultures in large areas at the expense of natural habitats, with crops and trees selected for their large size, high yield, nutritious value and economic value. This provides a highly conducive environment for herbivorous insects. In addition to agroecosystem-based integrated management practices during production, good post-harvest management and storage conditions are important in reducing losses caused by insect infestation in agriculture (FAO, no date). A detailed glossary of phytosanitary terms was developed for the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures. It was produced by the Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Examples of relevant terms for insect pest infestation are given below (FAO, 2019):"]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a0036ee7-1d31-4e40-9f5e-2a8718f3abcc","prefLabel":{"en":"Locust"},"altLabel":{"en":["Locust outbreaks,","Locust plagues","Locust upsurges,"]},"definition":{"en":"Widespread and heavy infestations of crops and natural vegetation by locusts causing significant threats to food security, livelihoods and natural habitats in multiple regions (adapted from FAO, 2009).FAO, 2009. Glossary on Desert Locust. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 10 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Locusts are defined as belonging to a large group of insects commonly called grasshoppers which are recognisable by the large, thickened hind legs that are used for jumping. All grasshoppers belong to the superfamily Acridoidea, and the most significant species are all in the family Acrididae. Locusts differ from grasshoppers in that they have the ability to change their behaviour, physiology, colour and shape (morphology) in response to changes in their population density. The life cycle of all species of locusts and grasshoppers comprises three stages: egg, hopper, adult (FAO, 2009a). A plague of locusts is defined as a period of one or more years of widespread and heavy locust infestations, the majority of which occur as bands or swarms. A plague can occur when favourable breeding conditions are present and control operations fail to stop a series of local outbreaks from developing into an upsurge that cannot be contained. A major plague exists when two or more regions are affected simultaneously (FAO, 2009a). The Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is able to fly long distances and migrate very fast. It is a transboundary pest, whose control requires international collaboration. This is also the case for about a dozen other locust pests, which can produce outbreaks on every continent except Antarctica (FAO, 2015). The Desert Locust is considered the most dangerous migratory pest in the world to threaten crop production and food security. It might be the oldest registered pest for its danger and ability to live and breed under wide-ranging ecological and climatic regimes, in vast areas covering 29 million km2 and extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to India and Pakistan in the east (FAO, 2009a). During plagues, swarms can invade more than 60 of the world’s poorest countries, and potentially damage the livelihood of one tenth of the world’s population, mostly in Africa, the Middle East and Asia (FAO, 2015). The worst Desert Locust outbreak in decades is currently underway in the Greater Horn of Africa Region (FAO, 2020a). Tens of thousands of hectares of cropland and pasture have been damaged in Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia, with potentially severe consequences for agriculture-based livelihoods in contexts where food security is already fragile (FAO, 2020b). Highly mobile and capable of stripping an area’s vegetation, locust swarms can cause large-scale agricultural and environmental damage. Even a relatively small locust swarm can eat the same amount of food in one day as about 35,000 people. This can be especially devastating in countries facing food security crises, where every gram of food produced counts towards alleviating hunger (FAO, 2020c). Locusts are also serious threats to agriculture in The Caucasus and Central Asia. Three main locust pests, the Asian Migratory Locust (Locusta migratoria migratoria), the Italian Locust (Calliptamus italicus) and the Moroccan Locust (Dociostaurus maroccanus) jeopardise food security and livelihoods in both regions as well as in adjacent areas of northern Afghanistan and southern Russian Federation. Over 25 million hectares of cultivated areas are potentially at risk. During outbreaks, upsurges and plagues, these pests attack and destroy pasturelands and a wide range of cultivated crops, including cereals, cucurbits, legumes, sunflower, tobacco, vegetables, vines, fruit trees, cotton and other plants. Locusts have a direct impact on agricultural production systems, which are vital to the viability and growth of the concerned countries, which largely rely on agriculture. The most affected populations are often the most vulnerable communities living in the rural areas. Because these are mainly small landowners, following subsistence agriculture, even limited infestations can cause severe damage at this scale and threaten livelihoods, which can in turn, also lead to adverse social consequences (FAO, 2020d). Locusts have a high capacity to multiply, form groups, migrate over relatively large distances (they can fly up to 100 km per day) and settle and breed in various habitats. These capacities enhance their prevalence at the regional level. The borders of countries in The Caucasus and Central Asia are often located across traditional locust habitats and breeding areas, and locusts frequently cross countries’ political borders. As a result, international collaboration is critical for their control. Locusts are becoming increasingly dangerous in the context of extreme weather events associated with climate change, due to their high capacity to exploit new situations. On average, over the past 15 years, locust affected area as large as almost 4 million hectares have been treated annually in Caucasus and Central Asia."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc236b1c-27cf-4ce3-ba36-65da70b54c8a","prefLabel":{"en":"Land degradation"},"definition":{"en":"Land degradation means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns such as: soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and long-term loss of natural vegetation (UNCCD, 1993).Alternative Definition: Land degradation is the reduction in the capability of the land to produce benefits from a particular land use under a specified form of land management (FAO, 1999).Alternative Definition: Land degradation is a negative trend in land condition, caused by direct or indirect human-induced processes including anthropogenic climate change, expressed as long-term reduction or loss of at least one of the following: biological productivity, ecological integrity or value to humans. [Note: This definition applies to forest and non-forest land. Changes in land condition resulting solely from natural processes (such as volcanic eruptions) are not considered to be land degradation. Reduction of biological productivity or ecological integrity or value to humans can constitute degradation, but any one of these changes need not necessarily be considered degradation.] (Olsson et al., 2019).Land degradation means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns such as: soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and long-term loss of natural vegetation (UNCCD, 1993).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the soil conservation arena, the terms soil degradation and land degradation are sometimes incorrectly used interchangeably, with soil erosion regarded as synonymous to both. However, there is more to soil degradation than just soil erosion, and land represents a broader concept than simply soil. As with its use in the context of land evaluation (FAO, 1976), the term land refers to all-natural resources which contribute to agricultural production, including livestock production and forestry. Land thus covers climate, landforms, water resources, soils and vegetation (including both grassland and forests) (FAO, 1999). There are a number of interrelated land degradation components, all of which may contribute to a decline in agricultural production. The most important according to Douglas (1994) cited by FAO (1999): Land degradation has both on-site and off-site effects. On-site effects are the lowering of the productive capacity of the land, causing either reduced outputs (crop yields, livestock yields) or the need for increased inputs. Off-site effects of water erosion occur through changes in the water regime, including decline in river water quality, and sedimentation of river beds and reservoirs. The main off-site effect of wind erosion is overblowing, or sand deposition (FAO, 1994). Examples of causes of different types of land degradation include water erosion, wind erosion, soil fertility decline, waterlogging, salinisation, lowering of the water table, deforestation, forest degradation and rangeland degradation (FAO, 1994). In their 2019 review on land degradation for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Olsson et al. (2019) reported that land degradation adversely affects people’s livelihoods (very high confidence) and occurs over a quarter of the Earth’s ice-free land area (medium confidence). The majority of the 1.3 to 3.2 billion affected people (low confidence) are living in poverty in developing countries (medium confidence). Land-use changes and unsustainable land management are direct human causes of land degradation (very high confidence), with agriculture being a dominant sector driving degradation (very high confidence). Soil loss from conventionally tilled land exceeds the rate of soil formation by more than 2 orders of magnitude (medium confidence). Land degradation affects humans in multiple ways, interacting with social, political, cultural and economic aspects, including markets, technology, inequality and demographic change (very high confidence). Land degradation impacts extend beyond the land surface itself, affecting marine and freshwater systems, as well as people and ecosystems far from the local sites of degradation (very high confidence) (Olsson et al., 2019). Studies indicate that land degradation directly affects 1.5 billion people worldwide, with a disproportionate impact on women, children and the poor, and it reduced the productivity of the world’s terrestrial surface by about 25% between 1981 and 2003 (FAO, 2020).","Soil degradation consists of biological, chemical and physical degradation. Currently, about 33% of world soils are moderately to highly degraded. Forty percent of these degraded soils are located in Africa and most of the rest are in areas that are afflicted by poverty and food insecurity. The strong relationship between soil health and food security calls for strategic and immediate actions, especially at the local level, to reverse soil degradation in order to increase food production and alleviate food insecurity in the areas where it is most needed and in the context of climate change (FAO, 2015). Soil is an essential component of ‘land’ and ‘ecosystems’ that both are broader concepts encompassing vegetation, water and climate in the case of land, and in addition to those three aspects, also social and economic considerations in the case of ecosystems. Degraded soils have a health status such that they do not provide the normal goods and services of the particular soil in its ecosystem (FAO, 2020a). Soil degradation is the decline in soil condition caused by its improper use or poor management, usually for agricultural, industrial or urban purposes. It is a serious environmental issue. Soils are a fundamental natural resource and are the basis for all terrestrial life. Avoiding soil degradation is crucial to our well-being (NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, 2019). Soil degradation is the physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality. It can be the loss of organic matter, decline in soil fertility, and structural condition, erosion, adverse changes in salinity, acidity or alkalinity, and the effects of toxic chemicals, pollutants or excessive flooding. Soil degradation can involve: water erosion (includes sheet, rill and gully erosion); wind erosion; salinity (includes dryland, irrigation and urban salinity); loss of organic matter; fertility decline; soil acidity or alkalinity; structure decline (includes soil compaction and surface sealing); mass movement; and soil contamination (NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, 2019)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3d5e1330-f23d-430f-af05-3ec87a1513fb","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest degradation"},"altLabel":{"en":["Canopy level dieback,","Forest Declines and Diebacks","Stand level dieback,","Walsterben and Waldschaden"]},"definition":{"en":"Forest declines and diebacks are episodic events characterised by premature, progressive loss of tree and stand vigour and health over a given period without obvious evidence of a single clearly identifiable causal factor such as physical disturbance or attack by primary disease or insect (Ciesla and Donaubauer, 1994).Ciesla, W.M. and M.E. Donaubauer, 1994. Decline and dieback of trees and forests: a global overview. FAO Forestry Paper No. 120. Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Forest ecosystems are a critical component of the world’s biodiversity as many forests are more biodiverse than other ecosystems. Forests cover 31% of the global land area. Approximately half of the forest area is relatively intact, and more than one-third is primary forest (i.e., naturally regenerated forests of native species, where there are no visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed) (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Forests provide habitat for the vast majority of the terrestrial plant and animal species known to science. Forests are being rapidly and directly transformed in many areas by the impacts of expanding human populations and economies (Allen, 2009). Forests and the biodiversity they contain continue to be under threat from actions to convert the land to agriculture or unsustainable levels of exploitation, much of it illegal (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Forest decline is characterised by the presence of symptoms such as reduced growth, shortened internodes, root necrosis, premature fall colouring in temperate forests, yellowing and loss of foliage, dieback of twigs and branches generally beginning in the upper crown, sprouting from adventitious buds and(or) increased prevalence and pathogenicity of root decay fungi (Manion and Lachance, 1992). Decline has been considered a symptom of disease, a distinct class of disease and as part of forest dynamics. Another widely accepted concept describes decline as a result of interaction of predisposing, inciting and contributing factors (Manion and Lachance, 1992). Predisposing factors are often of long-term duration with slowly changing factors such as soil, site and climate. These factors alter the ability of trees to withstand or respond to injury-inducing agents. Forests generally produce dieback of small branches. Examples include defoliating insects, late spring frost, drought (Steinkamp and Hickler, 2015) and salt spray. The contributory factors are those which further weaken and ultimately kill the tree. Examples include bark beetles, canker fungi and root decay fungi. These factors are persistent and visible and often wrongly blamed for tree death (Ciesla and Donaubauer, 1994). Less evident are the pervasive effects of ongoing climatic changes on the condition and status of forests around the world. Recent examples of drought and heat-related forest stress and dieback (defined here as tree mortality noticeably above usual mortality levels) are being documented from all forested continents, making it possible to begin to see global patterns. While climate events can damage forests in many ways ranging from ice storms to tornadoes and hurricanes, the emphasis here is on climatic water stress, driven by drought and warm temperatures (Allen, 2009). It has been estimated that the world is losing 20,000 hectares of forest a day with 835 hectares of forest disappearing every hour, the equivalent of 1140 football pitches (UNEP, FAO and UNFF, 2009)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e6ec781b-c9b0-4ed7-a0ee-d9ff460e64a8","prefLabel":{"en":"Plant evaporative stress"},"definition":{"en":"Plant evaporative stress in both crops and natural vegetation can result from the combination of a high atmospheric evaporative demand and limited available water to supply this demand by means of evapotranspiration, further enhancing agricultural and ecological drought."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/de383b95-0baf-45f6-b36a-afef965802c9","prefLabel":{"en":"Human systems impacts"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/db772d68-6c21-4494-9ca7-48b56fee7c87","prefLabel":{"en":"(Internal) Displacement (of humans)"},"definition":{"en":"The involuntary movement, individually or collectively, of persons from their country or community, notably for reasons of armed conflict, civil unrest, or natural or human-made disasters (adapted from IOM, 2011 in IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1f863f4c-20f7-4fa9-b5e3-e06cdbf049f4","prefLabel":{"en":"Air pollution"},"altLabel":{"en":["Indoor air pollution","Ambient air pollution","Contamination","Fugitive emissions","Outdoor air pollution","Point source emissions","Poisoning","Poor air quality","Smog"]},"definition":{"en":"Polluted air is air containing dust, smoke, micro-organisms or gases different from those from which it would normally be composed (WMO, 1992).Alternative definition: Polluted air is air which contains gases and particles emitted to the atmosphere by a variety of human activities and natural sources, or formed in the atmosphere, that at critical levels have harmful effects on human health, animals, plants and ecosystems, or reduce visibility and corrode materials, buildings and cultural heritage sites (UNEP, no date).Polluted air is air containing dust, smoke, micro-organisms or gases different from those from which it would normally be composed (WMO, 1992).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Around 3 billion people still cook using solid fuels (such as wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal, dung) and kerosene in open fires and inefficient stoves. Most of these people are poor and live in low- and middle-income countries. These cooking practices are inefficient and use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household air pollution with a range of health-damaging pollutants, including small soot particles that penetrate deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable levels for fine particles. Exposure is particularly high among women and young children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth (WHO, 2018a). Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.8 million people per year to die prematurely from illness attributable to the household air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels and kerosene for cooking. Among these 3.8 million deaths: 27% are due to pneumonia; 18% from stroke; 27% from ischaemic heart disease; 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); and 8% from lung cancer (WHO, 2018a).","Air pollution is caused by gases and particles emitted to the atmosphere by a variety of human activities, such as the inefficient combustion of fuels, agriculture, and farming. There are also natural sources contributing to air pollution, including particles of soil dust and salt in sea spray (UNEP, no date). Air pollutants can be emitted directly from a source (i.e., primary pollutants) or can form from chemical reactions in the atmosphere (i.e., secondary pollutants). When concentrations of these substances reach critical levels in the air, they harm humans, animals, plants and ecosystems, and reduce visibility and corrode materials, buildings and cultural heritage sites (UNEP, no date). The main atmospheric pollutants affecting human health are particulate matter, ground-level ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (US EPA, 2020a,b,c). The fine particles that damage human health are known as PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometres), which can penetrate deep into the lungs and pass into the bloodstream, affecting different organs and bodily functions. These particles can either be emitted directly or formed in the atmosphere from several different emitted pollutants (e.g., ammonia [NH3] and volatile organic compounds [VOCs]) (Air Pollution Information System, 2016; US EPA, 2020d; UNEP, no date). Ground-level ozone is an important secondary pollutant. It is a potent lung irritant and stunts growth in plants. It also oxidises surfaces with which it comes into contact, degrading the materials from which they are made. Ozone is also a powerful greenhouse gas. Tropospheric ozone is different to ozone in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), which protects us from ultraviolet light from the sun (UNEP, no date). Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are a group of air pollutants, comprising nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen monoxide (NO). Nitrogen dioxide is the most harmful of these compounds and is generated from human-driven activities. It impacts human health, reduces atmospheric visibility, and can play a significant role in climate change, at high concentrations. It is also a critical precursor to the formation of ground-level ozone (UNEP, no date). Particulate matter (both the aerosol that is directly emitted to the atmosphere and the secondary aerosol that is formed in the atmosphere) has a wide range of negative impacts, which depend on the chemical composition of the particles (UNEP, no date). Black carbon, which is a carbon particle produced as a result of partial combustion of hydrocarbons that contributes to air pollution, has strong negative impacts on health and contributes to climate warming (No More Planet, 2021). Aerosol has negative impacts on biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems (especially sulphur- and nitrogen-containing aerosol), and in high concentrations impacts visibility and has a soiling effects on surfaces (UNEP, no date).","Ambient (outdoor) air pollution is a major cause of death and disease globally. Long-term exposure to air pollution (over years or lifetimes) reduces life expectancy, mainly due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and lung cancer. The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that ambient air pollution caused 4.2 million premature deaths globally in 2016, of which 58% were due to ischaemic heart disease and strokes, 18% to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute lower respiratory infections respectively, and 6% to lung cancer (WHO, 2018). Short-term exposure (over hours or days) to elevated levels of air pollution can also cause a range of health impacts, including effects on lung function, exacerbation of asthma, increases in respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions and mortality. Emerging evidence suggests that air pollution may also affect the brain with possible links to dementia and cognitive decline and may also have an effect on early life, such as low birth weight. Ambient air pollution contains a range of pollutants (particles and gases) from a variety of sources, both natural and man-made (e.g., transport, industry, agriculture). Pollutants with the strongest evidence for public health concern, include particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) (WHO, 2020). ‘Particulate matter’ is a generic term used to describe a complex mixture of solid and liquid particles of varying size, shape, and composition. Some particles are emitted directly (primary PM); others are formed in the atmosphere through complex chemical reactions (secondary PM). The composition of PM varies greatly and depends on many factors, such as geographic location, emission sources and weather. The size of particles and the duration of exposure are key determinants of potential adverse health effects. Particles larger than 10 μm are mainly deposited in the nose or throat, whereas particles smaller than 10 μm pose the greatest risk because they can be drawn deeper into the lung. The health risks associated with PM of less than 10 and 2.5 microns in diameter (PM10 and PM2.5, respectively) are especially well documented. The strongest evidence for effects on health is associated with fine particles (PM2.5) (WHO, 2018; PHE, 2019). Although air pollution can be harmful to everyone, some people are more affected because they live in a polluted area, are exposed to higher levels of air pollution in their daily lives, or are more susceptible to health problems caused by air pollution. The most vulnerable face all of these disadvantages. Groups more affected by air pollution include older people, children, individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular or respiratory disease, pregnant women, communities in areas of higher air pollution and low-income communities (PHE, 2018).","Our food, air and water expose us to a complex mixture of chemicals and materials (UNEP, no date a). These chemicals have a wide range of effects on health. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 23% of all deaths worldwide, amounting to 12.6 million people, were due to environmental causes; with 90% occurring in low- to middle-income countries (UNEP, 2021). In the same year, the burden of disease from environmental factors related directly to pollution in terms of death, illness and disability was estimated at 345 million Disability Adjusted Life Years (UNEP, no date a). More recently, a study indicated that pollution is currently the largest environmental cause of disease and death, responsible for an estimated 9 million premature deaths globally in 2015 (Landrigan et al., 2017). With world population growing, the numbers of vulnerable groups exposed to pollutants will increase unless urgent pollution abatement policies are implemented, and actions taken at the local level (UNEP, no date a). Pollution can have a disproportionate and negative effect on the poor, the disadvantaged and the vulnerable. Pollution constitutes a significant impediment to achieving health, well-being, prosperity and the sustainable development goal of ‘leaving no one behind’ (UNEP, no date a). There is a critical need for system-wide transformations to prevent, reduce and control pollution, toward greater resource efficiency and equity, circularity and sustainable consumption and production, and improved ecosystem resilience to support cleaner and more sustainable development (UNEP, no date a).","Point source air pollution can be natural or man-made. A human generated point source of air pollution is one that emits a significant amount of an air pollutant from a fixed location such as an explosion, pollutants from a chimney stack or a tyre fire. Examples of point sources include power stations, steel works, foundries, incinerators, wood and pulp processors, paper mills, refineries and chemical production (Kibble and Harrison, 2005; Dunne et al., 2014). Point sources of air pollution from naturally occurring sources include smoke from wildfires, ash from volcanic eruptions and sand particles from deserts lifted and transported in the wind across cities and continents. Many people, particularly those in poorer populations or with pre-existing vulnerabilities, live near point sources of air pollution such as industrial sites and waste disposal operations. Point sources frequently generate speculation regarding potential association with disease clusters such as cancer, among those living in close proximity to the source location. Suspected disease clusters tend to generate significant public concern and media interest. However, there are currently limited epidemiological methods to enable effective detailed investigations into the impact of point-source air pollution and causal links with the disease of interest in identified clusters. There is a particular challenge with respect to obtaining reliable and accurate population exposure data at a very local level (WHO, no date). In many cases, the key question is whether releases from a point source result in a significant increase in exposure or whether other sources (background exposure) give rise to the dominant exposure (Kibble and Harrison, 2005). Detailed investigation of these differences requires high spatio-temporal resolution air quality data alongside incidence data obtained from accurate health information systems, such as disease registers or via case control studies."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb7030c3-e25c-4d6d-852d-ef81a98f9f14","prefLabel":{"en":"Household Air Pollution"},"altLabel":{"en":["Indoor air pollution"]},"definition":{"en":"Household air pollution is pollution primarily resulting from the incomplete combustion of solid fuels (e.g. wood, dung, charcoal, coal, kerosene), resulting in the emission of potentially toxic pollutants, including particles of varying sizes, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide, volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (e.g. formaldehyde and benzo[a]pyrene), methylene chloride and dioxins. It is one of the leading environmental risk factors for disease and premature death and is generated by the use of inefficient and polluting fuels and technologies in and around homes. \n\nReferences WHO, 2018. Household air pollution and health. World Health Organization (WHO). www.who.int/en/newsroom/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health Accessed 21 January 2025. \n\nNaeher, L.P., Brauer, M., Lipsett, M., Zelikoff, J.T., Simpson, C.D., Koenig, J.Q., & Smith, K.R., 2007. Woodsmoke health effects: a review. Inhalation toxicology, 19(1), 67-106. https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370600985875 Accessed 21 January 2025."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Around 3 billion people still cook using solid fuels (such as wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal, dung) and kerosene in open fires and inefficient stoves. Most of these people are poor and live in low- and middle-income countries. These cooking practices are inefficient and use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household air pollution with a range of health-damaging pollutants, including small soot particles that penetrate deep into the lungs. In poorly ventilated dwellings, indoor smoke can be 100 times higher than acceptable levels for fine particles. Exposure is particularly high among women and young children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth (WHO, 2018a). Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.8 million people per year to die prematurely from illness attributable to the household air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels and kerosene for cooking. Among these 3.8 million deaths: 27% are due to pneumonia; 18% from stroke; 27% from ischaemic heart disease; 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); and 8% from lung cancer (WHO, 2018a)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e4003cce-e56c-4d42-9cd7-f6c16740da15","prefLabel":{"en":"Assets"},"definition":{"en":"Natural or human-made resources that provide current or future utility, benefit, economic or intrinsic value to natural or human systems."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cf95d071-f4bb-4b35-be40-ba2fe93fc0aa","prefLabel":{"en":"Stranded assets"},"definition":{"en":"Assets exposed to devaluations or conversion to ‘liabilities’ because of unanticipated changes in their initially expected revenues due to innovations and/or evolutions of the business context, including changes in public regulations at the domestic and international levels."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f56720f7-3acc-4050-947f-7b0bbfbb962f","prefLabel":{"en":"Cultural impacts"},"definition":{"en":"Impacts on material and ecological aspects of culture and the lived experience of culture, including dimensions such as identity, community cohesion and belonging, sense of place, worldview, values, perceptions, and tradition. Cultural impacts are closely related to ecological impacts, especially for iconic and representational dimensions of species and landscapes. Culture and cultural practices frame the importance and value of the impacts of change, shape the feasibility and acceptability of adaptation options, and provide the skills and practices that enable adaptation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ef493454-897d-4821-8dd7-f4df55b4e799","prefLabel":{"en":"Food security"},"definition":{"en":"A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. The four pillars of food security are: access; availability; stability; and utilisation. The nutritional dimension is integral to the concept of food security (FAO, 2009,2018)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d0a26bf9-592f-4faa-8dea-8cf0377a3409","prefLabel":{"en":"Access (to food)"},"definition":{"en":"See Access under Food Security"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e36ea8ae-a216-48ac-9ecc-8f0771e4d1f5","prefLabel":{"en":"Acute food insecurity"},"definition":{"en":"Acute food insecurity is a situation which can occur at any time with a severity that threatens lives, livelihoods or both, regardless of the causes,context or duration, as a result of shocks risking determinants of food security and nutrition, and used to assess the need for humanitarian action (IPC Global Partners, 2019 in IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3a0e19b2-4fb2-4045-9dc8-67c6c2035fb3","prefLabel":{"en":"Fuel poverty"},"definition":{"en":"A condition in which a household is unable to guarantee a certain level of consumption of domestic energy services (especially heating) or suffers disproportionate expenditure burdens to meet these needs."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c17f01b7-3819-4eaa-b3f9-6f9bd4582e4d","prefLabel":{"en":"Habitability (human)"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of a place to support human life by providing protection from hazards which challenge human survival, and by assuring adequate space, food and freshwater."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ecccbc3a-8dd7-4000-8785-4391407fae2c","prefLabel":{"en":"Health"},"altLabel":{"en":["Health and wellbeing","Human health"]},"definition":{"en":"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/affee36b-965e-474a-9efe-53e274a3e85c","prefLabel":{"en":"Antimicrobial Resistant Microorganisms"},"altLabel":{"en":["Superbugs"]},"definition":{"en":"Antimicrobial resistant microorganisms are those microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites) that change when they are exposed to antimicrobial drugs (such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintic). Microorganisms that develop antimicrobial resistance are sometimes referred to as ‘superbugs’. As a result, the medicines become ineffective and infections persist in the body, increasing the risk of spread to others (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Antimicrobial resistance. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 27 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Antimicrobial resistance occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes. However, the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials is accelerating this process. In many places, antibiotics are overused and misused in people and animals, and often given without professional oversight. Examples of misuse include when antibiotics are taken by people with viral infections like colds and flu, and when they are given as growth promoters in animals or used to prevent diseases in healthy animals (WHO, 2020). Antimicrobial resistant organisms, sometimes referred to as ‘superbugs’, are found in people, animals, food, and the environment (in water, soil and air). They can spread between people and animals, including from food of animal origin, and from person to person. Poor infection control, inadequate sanitary conditions and inappropriate food-handling encourage the spread of antimicrobial resistance (WHO, 2020). Present situation (WHO, 2020): Antimicrobial resistance is an increasingly serious threat to global public health that requires action across all government sectors and society. It threatens the effective prevention and treatment of an ever-increasing range of infections caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi. New resistance mechanisms are emerging and spreading globally, threatening our ability to treat common infectious diseases, resulting in prolonged illness, disability, and death. Without effective antibiotics, the success of major surgery and cancer chemotherapy would be compromised. The cost of health care for patients with resistant infections is higher than care for patients with non-resistant infections due to longer duration of illness, additional tests and use of more expensive drugs. Antimicrobial resistance endangers achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (UNDESA, 2021). Resistance in bacteria (WHO, 2020): Patients with infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria are at increased risk of worse clinical outcomes and death and consume more health-care resources than patients infected with non-resistant strains of the same bacteria. Resistance in E. coli to one of the most widely used medicines for the treatment of urinary tract infections (fluoroquinolone antibiotics) is very widespread. Treatment failure to the last resort of medicine for gonorrhoea has been confirmed in at least 10 countries (Australia, Austria, Canada, France, Japan, Norway, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden, United Kingdom). Resistance to first-line drugs to treat infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus – a common cause of severe infections in health facilities and the community – is widespread. People with MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) are estimated to be 64% more likely to die than people with a non-resistant form of the infection. Resistance in tuberculosis (TB) (WHO, 2020): In 2016, an estimated 490,000 people developed multi-drug resistant TB (MDRTB), globally. MDR-TB is a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to the anti-TB drugs. It requires treatment courses that are much longer and less effective than those for non-resistant TB. Globally, only half of MDR-TB patients were successfully treated in 2014. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB), a form of tuberculosis that is resistant to at least four of the core anti-TB drugs, has been identified in 105 countries. An estimated 9.7% of people with MDR-TB have XDR-TB. Resistance in malaria (WHO, 2020): As of July 2016, resistance to the first-line treatment for P. falciparum malaria (artemisininbased combination therapies, also known as ACTs) has been confirmed in five countries of the Greater Mekong subregion (Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam). The spread of resistant strains to other parts of the world could pose a major public health challenge and jeopardise important recent gains in malaria control. A WHO Strategy for Malaria Elimination in the Greater Mekong subregion (2015-2030) was endorsed by all five countries, as well as China (WHO, 2015). Resistance in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (WHO, 2020): In 2010, an estimated 7% of people starting antiretroviral therapy in developing countries had drug-resistant HIV. In developed countries, the same figure was 10–20%. Some countries have recently reported levels at or above 15% among those starting HIV treatment, and up to 40% among people re-starting treatment. This requires urgent attention. Resistance in influenza (WHO, 2020): Antiviral drugs are important for treatment of epidemic and pandemic influenza. So far, virtually all influenza A viruses circulating in humans are resistant to one category of antiviral drugs – M2 Inhibitors (amantadine and rimantadine). Antiviral susceptibility is constantly monitored through the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (WHO, 2021)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0a1ca9a-397e-4c7d-9bde-fbbebb32f096","prefLabel":{"en":"Mental health"},"definition":{"en":"The state of well-being in which an individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and is able to contribute to his or her community."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e3ca9d6b-94e0-4c67-9c85-1fc32f62ce0e","prefLabel":{"en":"Stampede or Crushing (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Crowd disaster","Crush,","Mass panic,"]},"definition":{"en":"Stampede or crushing is the surge of individuals in a crowd, in response to a perceived danger or loss of physical space. It often disrupts the orderly movement of crowds resulting in irrational and dangerous movement for self-protection leading to injuries and fatalities (Illiyas et al., 2013).Illiyas, F., S. Mani, A. Pradeepkumar and K. Mohan, 2013. Human stampedes during religious festivals: a comparative review of mass gathering emergencies in India. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 5:10-18.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["With population growth and a constant increase in human travels, mass gatherings are becoming more frequent and attract increasing numbers of participants (Johansson et al., 2012). Mass gatherings can be defined as a concentration of people at a specific location for a specific purpose over a set period of time, and which has the potential to strain the planning and response resources of the country or the community (WHO, 2015). Mass gatherings are either spontaneous, such as at train stations during rush hour (Johansson et al., 2012) or are planned, such as at sport, cultural, religious, or political events (WHO, 2015). The Hajj pilgrimage in Saudi Arabia and the Kumbh Mela in India are the biggest regular mass gatherings globally, bringing millions of pilgrims together (Ahmed et al., 2006; Illiyas et al., 2013). Mass gatherings may affect health in different ways and crowd disasters may occur, including the collapse of infrastructure, fire incidents, terrorist attacks, violence riots, and human stampedes (Soomaroo and Murray, 2012; WHO, 2015; Still, 2019). Stampedes are often described as the “disruption of the orderly movement of crowds…leading to injuries and fatalities” (Illiyas et al., 2013), often “in response to a perceived danger, loss of physical space”, or “a will to attain something seen as gratifying” (Ngai et al., 2009; Burkle et al., 2011; Illiyas et al., 2013). They carry high mortality rates and are, besides heat-related illnesses, the most common cause of mortality in mass gatherings (Steffen et al., 2012; Still, 2019). Most human stampede casualties result from traumatic asphyxia caused by external compression of the thorax and/or upper abdomen, resulting in complete or partial cessation of respiration. It has been reported that significant compression forces can be present with even moderate crowds; forces of up to 4500 N (1000 lb) can be generated by just six to seven people pushing in a single direction with forces large enough to bend steel railings (Ngai et al., 2009). Although survivors of human stampedes and autopsy reports suggest traumatic asphyxia as the primary cause of death, other mechanisms have been considered, including myocardial infarction, direct crushing injury to intrathoracic or intraabdominal organs, head injury, and neck compression. All these mechanisms are possible; however, little actual supportive evidence exists. It has been concluded from autopsy findings that “people who succumb in these scenarios typically die (standing up) in a vertical position” due to compression force and “do not collapse to the floor until after the crowd density and pressure have been relieved. Compressive forces applied front to back or vice versa resulted in ventilatory failure, whereas those experiencing compressive forces from side to side were spared, presumably because chest expansion was not compromised to the same extent” (Ngai et al., 2009). The full spectrum of injuries – including fractures, dislocations, and other mechanical injuries – may be expected. Among survivors, many may suffer from posttraumatic stress, grief, or survivor guilt and require psychological counselling or intervention (Ngai et al., 2009)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5df32a1f-22c7-42ef-ac3b-f061eedc777f","prefLabel":{"en":"Suicide Cluster"},"altLabel":{"en":["Group suicide,","Mass suicide","Suicide contagion,","Suicide imitation,","Suicide pact,"]},"definition":{"en":"The term ‘suicide cluster’ describes a situation in which more suicides than expected occur in terms of time, place, or both. It is difficult to precisely define a cluster. A suicide cluster usually includes three or more deaths; however, two suicides occurring in a specific community or setting (for example a school) in a short time period should also be taken very seriously in terms of possible links and impacts (even if the deaths are apparently unconnected), particularly in the case of young people (PHE, 2019).PHE, 2019. Identifying and Responding to Suicide Clusters: A practice resource. Public Health England (PHE). Accessed 9 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term mass suicide can be used to describe situations in which a particular population or social group has reacted to (real or perceived) oppression or exploitation by another group or agent. The act of mass suicide transforms the psychology of a catastrophe from one in which a passive role is played into one constructed actively (Mancinelli et al., 2002). Mass suicides can therefore be classified as either self-induced (perceived) – the motivation is related to a distorted evaluation of reality, without there being either an intolerable situation or a real risk of death; or hetero-induced (real) – typical of defeated and colonised populations that are forced to escape from a reality in which human dignity is not acknowledged and typical of communities with a well-defined historical and cultural identity (Mancinelli et al., 2002). Few documented examples of mass suicide events exist, and these range from events documented in 113 BC to more recent events and are documented to have occurred in most regions of the world (Mancinelli et al., 2002). Mass suicides prompted by a perceived threat are often religious in nature and can be triggered by a charismatic leader (Dein and Littlewood, 2000). Examples include the People’s Temple in 1978 where 909 Americans died in a group led by Jim Jones, and Adam House in Bangladesh where nine members of the same family threw themselves in front of a train in 2007 (Selum, 2010). Mass suicides prompted by real threats most often occur during wartime, particularly among defeated or invaded populations (Goeschel, 2006). There are reported to be substantial differences in the pattern of suicide methods internationally (Ajdacic-Gross et al., 2008). It is difficult to ascertain how many suicides occur in clusters and the extent to which clusters contribute to overall suicide rates. Approximately 5% of all suicides in New Zealand appeared to occur in point clusters and 2.4% of suicides in Australia. Estimation of such figures is approximate. It is not known how many suicides occur in mass clusters because accurate identification of those affected may be impossible as they tend to be geographically remote; sometimes linked deaths occur in different countries (PHE, 2019). Many suicides happen impulsively and, in such circumstances, easy access to a means of suicide – such as pesticides or firearms – can make the difference as to whether a person lives or dies (WHO, 2014). The World Health Organization reported an estimated 793,000 suicide deaths worldwide in 2016 (WHO, 2017). This indicates an annual global age-standardised suicide rate of 10.5 per 100,000 population (WHO, 2017). For every suicide there are many more people who attempt suicide every year (WHO, 2019). Suicide is the third leading cause of death in those aged 15 to 19 years (WHO, 2019). 79% of global suicides occur in low- and middle-income countries with ingestion of pesticide, hanging and firearms among the most common methods of suicide globally (WHO, 2019)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d98c8b90-45ab-409b-825a-af45a413df86","prefLabel":{"en":"Human security"},"definition":{"en":"A condition that is met when the vital core of human lives is protected, and when people have the freedom and capacity to live with dignity. In the context of climate change, the vital core of human lives includes the universal and culturally specific, material and non-material elements necessary for people to act on behalf of their interests and to live with dignity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7a46aa5e-0e0d-4f86-a4c9-2fd03a6cf3e3","prefLabel":{"en":"Informal settlement"},"definition":{"en":"A term given to settlements or residential areas that by at least one criterion fall outside official rules and regulations. Most informal settlements have poor housing (with widespread use of temporary materials) and are developed on land that is occupied illegally with high levels of overcrowding. In most such settlements, provision for safe water, sanitation, drainage, paved roads and basic services is inadequate or lacking. The term ‘slum’ is often used for informal settlements, although it is misleading as many informal settlements develop into good quality residential areas, especially where governments support such development."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/37750c7a-0728-47e9-9a3c-0382b490f252","prefLabel":{"en":"Infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"The designed and built set of physical systems and corresponding institutional arrangements that mediate between people, their communities and the broader environment to provide services that support economic growth, health, quality of life and safety (Chester, 2019; Dawson et al., 2018)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Infrastructure is commonly classified into hard, soft, and nature-based infrastructure. This distinguishes between tangible, intangible and biotic systems. It may also be classified into social or economic infrastructure which considers systems that are a blend of tangible and intangible elements.\n\nHard Infrastructure consists of physical, engineered, or artisan-built infrastructure, networks, buildings, and other assets. See also \"\"Infrastructure systems\"\" and \"\"Grey infrastructure\"\".\n\nSoft infrastructure includes governance structures, regulatory frameworks, management processes, systems and technologies, process interdependencies within and between infrastructure sectors, interactions with changing contexts, and human factors, such as skills and knowledge. See also \"\"Infrastructure systems\"\". \n\nNature-based infrastructure refers to the natural environment’s resources and features that provide people, organizations and businesses with critical services or products directly, or with the support of humanly constructed physical infrastructure. See also “Blue infrastructure” and “Green infrastructure”.\n\nSocial Infrastructure refers to the hard, soft and nature-based infrastructure that provides for human welfare such as social, cultural, educational, and health-related services.\n\nEconomic infrastructure refers to the hard, soft and nature-based infrastructure that provides economic benefits through the production of goods and services. It includes provision of power, telecommunications, transportation, and financial services.\n\nIn common usage the term “infrastructure” usually refers to hard infrastructure. However, the concept of resilience implies a more nuanced appreciation of the different forms of infrastructure."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e028c2ce-be07-4051-b846-cbe2b2416725","prefLabel":{"en":"Blue infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Blue infrastructure includes bodies of water, watercourses, ponds, lakes and storm drainage, that provide ecological and hydrological functions including evaporation, transpiration, drainage, infiltration and temporary storage of runoff and discharge."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Blue infrastructure may be considered together with green infrastructure under the term \"blue-green infrastructure\"."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/43e62c8f-9322-4e2d-b141-a8b40de84725","prefLabel":{"en":"Community infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Primarily refers to small-scale basic structures, and systems developed at the community level, that are critical for sustenance of lives and livelihoods of the population and are conceived as critical lifelines for survival of the community. These are generally low-cost and small-scale, that may develop over time in response to the needs and aspirations of the population and may use both community and external resources (NGO, local government, for example) (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Community infrastructure is a fundamental first step in achieving resilience as it relates directly to the immediate needs of population in achieving an everyday, sustainable existence.\n\nNon-governmental organisations (NGOs) may support the construction and maintenance of community infrastructure through offering funds, technical support and physical construction. Community infrastructure is often built through a co-production process involving communities, NGOs and sometimes government.\n\nCommunity infrastructure is often initiated informally as a response to the lack of government interventions in a given neighbourhood. As such, it may function in isolation, or be connected to the formal system in an informal manner. Since it does not comply with regulatory mechanisms and prevailing standards, it is often not monitored or maintained by government agencies."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84eff4c7-2d5e-42fd-8cbb-09120828bf29","prefLabel":{"en":"Critical infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"The physical structures, facilities, networks, and other assets which provide services that are essential to the social and economic functioning of society (UNDRR, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Well-designed critical infrastructure normally prevents the creation of secondary risks that may result from environmental degradation as an outcome of service provision such as infrastructure for safe sanitation.\n\n\"Criticality\" is dependent on scale and context, for example, a wind turbine may be considered critical in a community which relies on it as a sole source of electricity, but it might be a choice where there multiple sources of electricity generation available. \n\nServices provided by critical infrastructure may be referred as \"Critical services\"."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42841aff-3fb7-4d25-80c7-dfdf385f50d5","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster resilient infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure systems and networks, the components and assets thereof, and the services they provide, that are able to resist and absorb disaster impacts, maintain adequate levels of service continuity during crises, and recover in such a manner that future risks are reduced or prevented (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster resilience measures are relevant to planning, design, financing, operation and maintenance of infrastructure systems and networks."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9142ee2d-d0e3-4188-a514-3bf0c6919dd1","prefLabel":{"en":"Downgraded infrastructure systems"},"altLabel":{"en":["Downgraded infrastructure system"]},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure that is incapable of efficiently and securely performing to the intended standards for which it was designed. This can be due to poor implementation or construction, wear and tear, age, usage, and/or lack of maintenance which may affect performance especially in the face of shocks and stresses."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Poor performance of infrastructure is typically categorized as downgraded through a process of evaluation according to established norms and standards.\n\nThe pace of downgrading can be accelerated by (i) social factors, (ii) governance mechanisms, (iii) natural decay and deterioration, (iv) poor detailing and design, (v) lack of maintenance. See also “Infrastructure maintenance\".\n\nIn some contexts, infrastructure can be downgraded for reasons other than poor performance, e.g., reclassification of a highway from one type to another. \n\nUpgraded infrastructure is infrastructure that meets a higher performance standard, often through improvements, expansions, or renewals to parts of an infrastructure system."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2341b1df-e311-4e7f-b408-20605cfd8a1b","prefLabel":{"en":"Financial infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"The hard infrastructure (including physical assets such as telecommunication assets, buildings and equipment), and soft infrastructure (such as rules, standards, policies and processes) that enable financial transactions and other functions of the financial system (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/539bb567-bdeb-428f-905d-4f96b6703077","prefLabel":{"en":"Green infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"The strategically planned interconnected set of natural and constructed ecological systems, green spaces and other landscape features that can provide functions and services including air and water purification, temperature management, floodwater management and coastal defence often with co-benefits for human and ecological well-being. Green infrastructure includes planted and remnant native vegetation, soils, wetlands, parks and green open spaces, as well as building and street-level design interventions that incorporate vegetation (Culwick and Bobbins, 2016)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["\"Blue infrastructure\" may be considered together with “Green infrastructure” in the term \"Blue-Green infrastructure”."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6fdef52d-9d70-4e11-9ae0-46780a4365a8","prefLabel":{"en":"Grey infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Engineered physical components and networks of pipes, wires, tracks and roads that underpin energy, transport, communications (including digital), built form, water and sanitation and solid waste management systems, and protect human lives and livelihood (IPCC, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Grey Infrastructure may be interpreted more narrowly to refer to subsets of the above definition."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9ab4faa4-bfeb-48de-919d-20f73292907e","prefLabel":{"en":"Infrastructure maintenance"},"definition":{"en":"Maintenance is a cycle of activities designed and undertaken to preserve the optimal functioning of infrastructure, including in adverse conditions. It is a necessary precondition for the preservation of its operational capability, and to guarantee service continuity (ISO 9001 7.1.3 Infrastructure)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Maintenance includes regular inspection (planned and unplanned) which is vital to the understanding of the condition and performance of the infrastructure and for checking the need for downgrading."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f8596ee0-397a-4267-ada5-96d7ac68184a","prefLabel":{"en":"Infrastructure systems"},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure systems are arrangements of infrastructure components and linkages that provide a service or services (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7a5b3bf4-5e84-43e4-b153-306ed5f5ee47","prefLabel":{"en":"Infrastructure vulnerability"},"altLabel":{"en":["infrastructure vulnerabilities"]},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure vulnerability refers to the sensitivity or susceptibility of any system to harm, and its lack of capacity to cope and/or adapt to stresses and shocks (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["This definition is an adaptation of the UNDRR definition of “Vulnerability” contextualized to disaster resilient infrastructure.\n\nVulnerability relates to characteristics that could render infrastructure inadequate to perform its designated function in the face of a hazard. These characteristics could be an outcome of processes by which infrastructure was planned and built, and to external conditions associated with use, operation, maintenance, and changes in the external environment that may threaten its functioning."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ad8ca75f-a822-4257-beae-1ef0b036617f","prefLabel":{"en":"Local infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Refers to facilities at the local level, including water, drainage and sanitation networks, road, river and rail networks, bridges, health and education facilities, as well as other local facilities which support local productions, among others, that provide locally promoted essential services to individuals, households, communities and businesses in their current locations (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Refers to infrastructure service delivery at local and/or sub-national scale."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/805d4e2c-2c0f-4eb4-8679-a05a35d37c04","prefLabel":{"en":"Multi-purpose infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure assets and systems that serve more than one primary objective or purpose. The multi-purpose nature of such systems offers better value for money and a promise of sustainability due to the sheer variety of users that would have an interest in the maintenance and upkeep of the system for diverse reasons (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term has traditionally been used in the context of Multi-Purpose Water Infrastructure (MPWI) comprising all constructed water systems, including dams, dykes, reservoirs and associated irrigation canals and water supply networks, which may be used concomitantly for economic, social and environmental activities. \n\nIt has been observed that often \"single purpose\" infrastructure evolves into multi-purpose use over time. As a result, to derive best value for money and for the sustainability of projects, infrastructure assets are now often conceptualised for multiple use by design."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7d7d4b8a-1c87-4f1f-9337-07ed746a30dd","prefLabel":{"en":"Social infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"The social, cultural, and financial activities and institutions as well as associated property, buildings and artefacts and policy domains such as social protection, health and education that support well-being and public life (Frolova et al., 2016; Latham and Layton, 2019)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9130bb16-7cfb-48cd-9742-25857aca1dd0","prefLabel":{"en":"Malnutrition"},"definition":{"en":"Deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy and/or nutrients. The term malnutrition addresses three broad groups of conditions: undernutrition, which includes wasting (low weight-for-height), stunting (low height-for-age) and underweight (low weight-for-age); micronutrient-related malnutrition, which includes micronutrient deficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient excess; and overweight, obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases (such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and some cancers) (WHO, 2018). Micronutrient deficiencies are sometimes termed ‘hidden hunger’ to emphasise that people can be malnourished in the sense of deficient without being deficient in calories. Hidden hunger can apply even where people are obese."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8fb81ee8-a884-44b5-b018-15e7e6656243","prefLabel":{"en":"Poverty trap"},"definition":{"en":"Poverty trap is understood differently across disciplines. In the social sciences, the concept, primarily employed at the individual, household or community level, describes a situation in which escaping poverty becomes impossible due to unproductive or inflexible resources. A poverty trap can also be seen as a critical minimum asset threshold, below which families are unable to successfully educate their children, build up their productive assets and get out of poverty. Extreme poverty is itself a poverty trap since poor persons lack the means to participate meaningfully in society. In economics, the term poverty trap is often used at national scales, referring to a self-perpetuating condition where an economy, caught in a vicious cycle, suffers from persistent underdevelopment (Matsuyama, 2008). Many proposed models of poverty traps are found in the literature."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dc7cef54-f6f3-4145-aac0-171d1139cf18","prefLabel":{"en":"Violence"},"definition":{"en":"Violence refers to the intentional or unintentional use of force whether physical or psychological, threatened or actual, against an individual, oneself, or against a group of people, a community, or a government. Violence can either be targeted or indiscriminate, motivated by certain aims, including political, religious, social, economic, ethnic, racial, or gender-based, or unintentional and can be initiated with the aim to directly or indirectly inflict harm, injury or death (Krug et al., 2002). Armed as well as non-armed forms of violence can occur both in conflict and non-conflict settings. Violence has been explicitly identified as a significant public health problem (Rutherford et al., 2007).Krug, E.G., L.L. Dahlberg, J.A. Mercy, A.B. Zwi and R. Lozano (eds.), 2002. World Report on Violence and Health. World Health Organization.. Accessed 13 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The World Health Organization categorises violence as: self-directed, interpersonal and collective. All three categories of violence can have a societal impact whether directly or indirectly (WHO, 2002). According to Galtung (1969, 1996), violence can also be direct, structural, and cultural. There are several forms and typologies of violence. These are characterised here on the basis of the motives, target groups and tactics of violence: Motives: Political violence is defined as hostile, aggressive or violent acts motivated by political objectives or a desire to directly or indirectly affect political change or change in governance. As a phenomenon, political violence includes a range of political acts from mass protest, riots, coups, rebellions, uprisings and terrorism to violent acts committed by state and non-state actors, including pogroms, ethnic cleansing, and genocide (Kalyvas, 2013; Balcells, 2015). Radicalisation, radicalism and violent extremism are generally used in the discourse of terrorism but remain poorly defined and understood. While violent extremism is generally equated with terrorism, radicalisation is often perceived as a prelude and a pre-condition to violence. While radicalisation, by definition, does not involve the use of violence, it refers to a process, often a multidimensional, complex and long-term process, by which individuals are introduced to extremist ideologies that motivate them to defy and challenge the status quo. This often leads to the eventual adoption of violence. Violent extremism refers to the “the willingness to use or support the use of violence” or terror as appropriate means to achieve ideological, social or political objectives (Elshimi, 2018; Mansour-Ille, 2019). Religious violence refers to violent acts committed by either state or non-state actors and motivated by religious convictions, ideologies or belief systems. Religious violence is closely associated with radicalism and religious extremism and refers to acts ranging from inciting violence against particular religious groups, discrimination or segregating certain religious groups, persecution, genocide, random physical aggression, gang or mob violence and defaming or injuring verbal abuse or violence (Clarke, 2011). Ethnic or racial violence refers to violence between different groups of people on the basis of ethnic or racial differences or differences in culture, religion or language motivated by ethnic or racial diversity. Violent acts motivated by ethnic or racial differences take many forms, ranging from segregation and institutionalised discrimination to genocide, ethnic cleansing, pogroms, civil wars and violent separatist movements (Bergmann and Crutchfield, 2009; Rutherford and Bar-Yam, 2010). Social violence (also referred to as societal violence) refers to any type of violence employing physical or emotional acts of aggression committed by individuals or a community of individuals with the aim to have a social or societal impact or cause serious physical and emotional harm to a group of people or to society as a whole. These acts can be direct or indirect and can take various forms across countries varying from targeted social discrimination, segregation, terrorism, physical aggression to gang violence. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1979) refers to various forms of discriminatory acts on the basis of gender, which may impair or nullify “the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women” of their basic human rights and fundamental freedoms equal to men “in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field” (Art. 1). Social violence can also be politically motivated (Kelly, 2014). Target groups: Gender-based violence is defined as acts or threats of acts intended to cause harm, injury, physical, sexual or psychological suffering to women on the basis of their gender or acts affecting women disproportionally (Krantz and Garcia-Moreno, 2005). It is defined by the UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life” (Art. 1). Gender-based violence is also used in the context of domestic violence or intimate partner violence and can result in various forms of abuse and exploitation, including economic exploitation. A form of gender-based violence is sexual violence and exploitation, which refers to any form of abuse or exploitation that is sexually motivated targeting vulnerable groups, particularly women and children. Convention C190 of the ILO (2019) defines gender-based violence as violence and harassment “directed at persons because of their sex or gender or affecting persons of a particular sex or gender disproportionately and includes sexual harassment” (Art. 1b). Child abuse, violence and exploitation refer to acts of violence, cruel or harmful treatment of a minor for profit, labour, sexual gratification, vengeance or other personal or financial gains (Legal Dictionary, 2015). The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989) explicitly prohibits “all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child” (Art. 19.1). Tactics: Terrorism refers to acts – either politically or religiously motivated – that aim to instil fear and/or the intimidation of fear in society (i.e. mass terror). Terrorism includes acts of aggression or violence that causes either directly or indirectly physical or psychological harm or injury to a group of people. Terrorism can both be perpetrated by as well as against the state (Teichman, 1989). One of the most widely used definitions of terrorism is that of the US Department of State, which in 1983 defined terrorism as “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience” (Sinai, 2008). ‘Non-combatants’ refer to both civilian and military personnel, who neither armed nor on duty. The definition, however, excludes state terrorism (Sinai, 2008). Psychological violence refers to any intentional or unintentional conduct that aims to cause serious emotional or psychological harm to another person (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2017). The Istanbul Convention (2011) outlines examples of such acts to include verbal aggression, coercive threats and intimidation, control, harassment or stalking, insults, humiliating and defaming conducts as well as acts that render another person isolated from family, friends and any sort of support. Such acts mainly occur in interpersonal relationships, such as familial, parental or intimate partner relationships (Chapter V). Torture is defined in the Convention against Torture (CAT) (1984) as “any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity” (Art. 1.1). The Convention, however, excludes pain or suffering arising from the enforcement of lawful sanctions. The prohibition against torture and other forms of ill-treatment are embodied in several international human rights treaties and declarations, including: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (Art. 5, 1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (Art. 7, 1966), and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984). Several regional human rights treaties also uphold and reaffirm the prohibition against torture and other forms of ill-treatment, including: The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) (Art. 3, 1950), the American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) (Art. 5, 1969), the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) (Art. 5, 1981), the Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture (1985), and the European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1987). Cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment refers to ill-treatment, which is premediated and applied for prolonged periods of time that amounts to be cruel, inhumane and violating human dignity aimed at causing bodily injury, harm or intense physical and mental suffering (European Court of Human Rights, 2000). Gang-related violence refers to violence that is perpetrated by a group of people who associate themselves to what can be referred to as a ‘gang’ – a relatively well-defined, durable and predominately street-based group of young people dominating a particular territory and known to the wider community (UK Government, 2016). Organised crime, on the other hand, refers to violent crimes or criminal activities committed by a group of people in an organised manner for profit using coercion, retaliation and extortion (UK Department of Justice, 2020). Organised crimes are not confined to particular territories or borders."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6895d51a-b4f9-4341-bf8d-e5c1edbd7fac","prefLabel":{"en":"water scarcity"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3206b76e-81d7-48a8-a5f9-6defa1612ddf","prefLabel":{"en":"Water security"},"definition":{"en":"The capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability (UN-Water, 2013)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17cb7fae-a028-4ba3-9577-90d0d6640e08","prefLabel":{"en":"Well-being"},"definition":{"en":"A state of existence that fulfils various human needs, including material living conditions, meaningful social and community relationships and quality of life, as well as the ability to pursue one’s goals, to thrive, and feel satisfied with one’s life. Ecosystem well-being refers to the ability of ecosystems to maintain their diversity and quality."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/30dfbe81-e8db-4a37-a279-85e405762ed1","prefLabel":{"en":"Eudaimonic"},"definition":{"en":"Relational well-being concept based on the premise that experiencing life purpose, challenges and growth leads to flourishing, self-realisation, personal expression, and full functioning (Niemiec 2014; Lamb and Steinberger 2017)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/efc46fcd-7469-44e7-9beb-26be8e975df8","prefLabel":{"en":"Hedonic"},"definition":{"en":"Subjective well-being concept based on the idea that attaining pleasure and avoiding pain leads to happiness (Ryan and Deci, 2001)."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3ec56faf-5d69-4962-9a94-56146817df01","prefLabel":{"en":"impact chains"},"definition":{"en":"Impact Chains (ICs) is an analytical tool that helps to better understand, systemise and prioritise the factors that drive climate impact related risks in a specific system of concern and serve as a backbone for an operational climate risk assessment (Aall et al., 2020)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The concept has been adapted to the new IPCC Assessment Report (AR)5 concept of climate risk (Zebisch et al, 2017) and recommended for climate risk assessments in the context of Ecosystem Based Adaptation (Hagenlocher et al, 2018). ICs have since then been more and more widely used as a climate risk assessment method. The method is perceived as a useful tool for analysis as well as for communication of complex cause-effect relationships in climate change impacts and risks."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bc017bb5-1827-4843-a108-12e896ab30a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Loss and Damage, and losses and damages"},"altLabel":{"en":["Losses and damages"]},"definition":{"en":"Research has taken Loss and Damage (capitalised letters) to refer to political debate under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) following the establishment of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage in 2013, which is to ‘address loss and damage associated with impacts of climate change, including extreme events and slow onset events, in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.’ Lowercase letters (losses and damages) have been taken to refer broadly to harm from (observed) impacts and (projected) risks and can be economic or non-economic (Mechler et al., 2018)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58f0d97e-7b7d-46cf-9dd8-68efdd7a6565","prefLabel":{"en":"Damage cost function"},"definition":{"en":"A damage cost function is a mathematical relationship that estimates the economic loss or damage resulting from a hazardous event, based on the intensity or magnitude of that event. These functions are commonly used in risk assessment, disaster management, and climate impact studies.\n\nDamage functions are tools that translate the magnitude of extreme events—such as floods, storms, or heatwaves—into quantifiable economic damage. They are essential for understanding potential losses and for planning mitigation strategies (Prahl et al., 2016)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ede89fb2-646d-4bdd-b791-942cad85f6f8","prefLabel":{"en":"Direct and indirect loss and damage"},"definition":{"en":"Direct loss and damage refer to the loss directly associated with original hazard impacts. Indirect loss is a consequence of such direct loss and damage. For instance, direct loss of roads and bridges due to a landslide may lead to indirect losses such as interruption of commercial flows between places. Damage to factories due to earthquake may lead to unemployment and unpayable debt; need for reconstruction finance may lead to diversion of planned development funds from other activities (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["This could be interpreted as an element of cascading impact."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/60b31e19-7b2d-4e13-a38e-4f7161e2bbcd","prefLabel":{"en":"Economic loss"},"definition":{"en":"Total economic impact that consists of direct economic loss and indirect economic loss (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5cf3eb17-0216-4c0a-992a-0dfff21ecb9b","prefLabel":{"en":"Planetary health"},"definition":{"en":"A concept based on the understanding that human health and human civilisation depend on ecosystem health and the wise stewardship of ecosystems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/26ae5bba-033a-43fb-a08a-168e361a5ecf","prefLabel":{"en":"Technological, physical and infrastructure Impacts"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/631ab8f9-b6c3-444a-9d77-c30374d8f9cd","prefLabel":{"en":"Disruption and loss of services"},"definition":{"en":"A situation whereby access to infrastructure services is interrupted temporarily or lost, following damage or destruction of individual assets or networks or the breakdown in the system as a whole (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/69f058a2-f022-4f6a-92a9-739291b61af8","prefLabel":{"en":"Drain and Sewer Flooding"},"altLabel":{"en":["Drainage floods,","Pluvial flood","Urban flooding,"]},"definition":{"en":"Drain and sewer flooding is said to occur when sewage or foul water leaks from the sewerage system (through pipes, drains or manholes) or floods up through toilets, sinks or showers inside a building (Priestly, 2016).Priestly, S., 2016. Sewer flooding. House of Commons Library. London. Accessed 30 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Drain and/or sewer flooding is a condition where wastewater and/or surface water escapes from or cannot enter a drain or sewer system and either remains on the surface or enters buildings. Drains and/or sewers can also undergo surcharge which is a condition in which wastewater and/or surface water is held under pressure within a gravity drain or sewer system but does not escape to the surface to cause flooding (Document Center, 1995). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme (IHP) Urban Water Series, comprising a set of books on urban water management, addresses fundamental issues related to the role of water in cities and the effects of urbanisation on the hydrological cycle and water resources. Focusing on integrated approaches to sustainable urban water management, the Series provides valuable scientific and practical information for urban water practitioners, policymakers and educators throughout the world (UNESCO, 2011). Water governance is usually highly decentralised, with overall responsibility held at the level of local government. However, there are still countries where the federal level or the state plays a key role in day-to-day operations (UNESCO / ARCEAI IdF, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/79adeedb-89eb-4215-8cd0-a8a476e80073","prefLabel":{"en":"Emergency Telecommunications Failure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Communications capability,","Emergency communication systems,","Emergency services","Emergency telecommunications,","Network enabled capability,"]},"definition":{"en":"Emergency telecommunications failure is an umbrella term for telecommunications of an ‘extraordinary nature’ under abnormal and potentially adverse network conditions (ITU, 2007).ITU, 2007. Y.2172: Service restoration priority levels in Next Generation Networks. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Accessed 30 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Emergency telecommunications failure is closely linked to service restoration. Service restoration is described as a set of automated or manual methods, invoked after a network failure, to enhance the ability of successful communications reroute and completion around the failed network element(s) (ITU, 2007). All forms of communications traffic are expected to be carried by next generation networks – control plane traffic (e.g., routing and signalling messages), emergency telecommunications, real-time voice and video services, data services, virtual private network (VPN) services, as well as traditional ‘Best effort’ traffic. In such an environment, it is important to assign priority classifications and establish rules for service restoration such that critical services (e.g., control plane traffic and emergency telecommunications) are recognised and restored over other services in case of network overloads or failures. As service flows can be expected to traverse multiple network domains, priority classification is an important step in the development of the necessary signalling protocol extensions as well as of the mechanisms for enabling preferential restoration of critical services (ITU, 2007). The priority level classification is based on the following premise: “under reduced bandwidth conditions resulting from network failure, the critical issue for next generation network is the ability to recognize and restore higher priority traffic flows over others” (ITU, 2007). The priority level recommendations proposed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) strictly relate to the relative importance of traffic classes from this perspective (ITU, 2007)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3c1f3f83-8533-46b5-b234-31e2317136e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Nuclear Plant Failure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Nuclear meltdown,","Nuclear shutdown"]},"definition":{"en":"Nuclear plant failure occurs when the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor results in either the core to have a complete or partial collapse (adapted from USNRC, 1975).USNRC, 1975. Reactor Safety Study: An Assessment of Accident Risks in US Commercial Nuclear Power Plants (Vol 88). United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC). Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Nuclear reactors are used to heat water to produce enormous amounts of low-carbon electricity and can be powered by a variety of different fuels. The fissioning of atoms in the chain reaction releases a large amount of energy as heat. The generated heat is removed from the reactor by a circulating fluid, typically water. This heat is then used to generate steam which drives turbines for electricity production (World Nuclear Association, 2020). Electricity is essential for modern life, however, almost one billion people live without access to electricity. Global challenges such as climate change, pollution and environmental degradation require nations to generate electricity renewably (World Nuclear Association, no date). During the 20th century, the main energy sources for generating electricity were fossil fuels, hydroelectricity and since the 1950s, nuclear energy. Despite the growth and demand for renewable energy, fossil fuels remain the dominant source globally. Nuclear power is an environmentally friendly form of electricity generation. Although proponents of nuclear energy claim this is a renewable and safe form of energy, when nuclear plant failures do occur, they can have significant human, environmental, and socio-economic impacts (World Nuclear Association, no date). In 2018, nuclear power generated 10.5% of the world’s electricity (World Nuclear Association, 2020). Nuclear reactors are a reliable source of energy and are capable of running for 24 hours a day for many months and possibly up to years without interruption, providing large amounts of clean electricity. Most nuclear reactors can operate for many years, over 60 years in some cases (World Nuclear Association, 2020). Reactors derived from designs originally developed for propelling submarines and large naval ships generate about 85% of the world’s nuclear electricity. The most common power reactor types use water, with more than 90% of the world’s reactors being water-based (World Nuclear Association, no date). The nuclear plant failures in Chernobyl and Fukushima are notable examples of major disasters. Chernobyl, Ukraine (former Soviet Union) 1986: Chernobyl, is considered the world’s worst nuclear disaster to date. A sudden power surge resulted in explosions and nearly complete destruction of the reactor. Fires broke out in the building which contributed to the extensive radioactive releases. The initial steam explosion and fire killed two people with a further 28 dying from radiation poising within three months. Massive amounts of radiation spread across the Soviet Union and Europe, and displaced 220,000 people as well as contributing to significant health, environmental and socio-economic impacts (WHO, 2016; World Nuclear Association, 2019). Fukushima, Japan 2011: The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and tsunami that struck Japan on 11 March 2011, destroyed four reactors at the Fukushima nuclear power plant due to the loss of cooling as a result of the tsunami. There were no deaths or serious injuries as a direct result of radioactivity."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1db0744d-0164-4a65-b736-4a50d3e3e89d","prefLabel":{"en":"Power Outage/ or Blackout"},"altLabel":{"en":["Brownout","Electricity disruption,","Electricity failure,","Power cut,","Power loss,"]},"definition":{"en":"In the electric power domain, especially in power transmission and distribution, a power outage usually refers to a partial or total loss of power supply to some end user (e.g., population, enterprises, critical systems). Triggering factors may include accidents, equipment breakdowns, failure of control mechanisms, targeted attacks (physical or cyber), organisational errors, and natural hazards (adapted from Pescaroli et al., 2017; UK Cabinet Office, 2017; EIS Council, 2019; and FEMA, 2018).EIS Council, 2019. Black Sky Hazards. Electric Infrastructure Security (EIS) Council. Accessed 9 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Power outage can manifest in various forms, including transient faults, brownouts, and blackouts. They may initiate from both the supply and demand side. In some cases, power outages also materialise as the result of a situational response, such as in order to prevent worse consequences (e.g., rolling blackouts). Event severity of power outages may exceed the ordinary by far; for instance, the Electric Infrastructure Security Council defines a Black Sky Hazard as “a catastrophic event that severely disrupts the normal functioning of our critical infrastructures in multiple regions for long durations” (EIS Council, 2019). The process of full restoration of the electricity network after the total or partial shutdown of the grid is sometimes termed as black start (UK Cabinet Office, 2017). Terminology and definitions may vary, even significantly, across operational contexts and agencies."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c10187a2-5a69-4f04-8b21-c93b7d8a2932","prefLabel":{"en":"Radio and Other Telecommunication Failures"},"altLabel":{"en":["Communication breakdown,","Communication system failure"]},"definition":{"en":"Radio and other telecommunication failures can be said to occur when there is internal or external interruption of communications by either party that results in difficult to transport the message as it was intended (adapted from Dainty et al., 2007).Dainty, A., D. Moore and M. Murray, 2007. Communication in Construction: Theory and Practice. Routledge.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Radio and communication technology is integrated into everyday life and has significantly advanced in recent decades. Communication channels such as radio, cellular networks, and satellites aim to broadcast or convey information and warnings to populations. In a disaster response event, the goal of any communication system is to maximise the number of people who act on and take appropriate and timely actions for protecting property and ensuring life safety (Khaled and Mcheick, 2019). Efficient and effective communication linkages are critical prior to, during and following a disaster event, particularly among emergency personnel to assist with disaster response and recovery. However, failure of communication systems, whether complete or partial such as radio or satellites systems has caused inefficiency and delays in emergency relief efforts and response, which leads in turn to loss of life and preventable injuries. Failure of communication systems can cause catastrophic damage to human life and economic activities as people are unable to communicate with each other in a timely manner and with a good quality of service (Khaled and Mcheick, 2019). A notable example of radio and communications failure was caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami: A magnitude 9.0 earthquake struck the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, generating tsunami waves with maximum heights ranging from 2 to 30 m, inundating the coastal areas of many surrounding countries. Although this event was the first global natural disaster where practitioners and the public mediated their experience of it through the internet, communication technology was not used to its fullest extent during the immediate response, which resulted in a lower delivery of humanitarian aid. The main reasons for the communication failure were the destruction of technology infrastructure, accumulated debris, and extensive flooding that affected the power systems and cabins that contain the base transceiver station (BTS) equipment. There were also other telecommunications limitations such as limited network coverage, lack of early warning systems, and lack of rescue equipment (Khaled and Mcheick, 2019). Key reasons for communications systems failure include: damage and/or destruction of communication system components; damage and/or disruption in supporting network infrastructure; and disruption due to congestion. Damage and/or destruction of communication system components is considered the most common and well-documented cause of telecommunications failures in recent disasters. Because of the time and funding needed to repair and replace systems, disruption caused by physical damage tends to be more severe and time-consuming to restore as it may require maintenance or replacement of complex hardware, particularly essential components such as cell towers or cables. The fragility of communication systems is due to the lack of a high degree of redundancy (Townsend and Moss, 2005). Communication outages caused by damage and/or disruption in supporting network infrastructure tend to be far more widespread and damaging during response and recovery efforts. Some communication systems are reliant on many other local and regional technical systems to ensure effective operation. Supporting infrastructure often lacks resiliency to physical damage (Townsend and Moss, 2005). Disruption due to congestion is another type of major communication failure during disaster and is a direct result of network congestion or overload, and results in blocked calls and messages unsent. Historically, disasters are one of the most intense generators of communications traffic, and the resulting surge of demand can clog even the most well-managed networks. However, communication can be restored relatively rapidly (Khaled and Mcheick, 2019). Lessons identified from previous disaster events, conclude that radio and satellite-based communications were most effective, while conventional communications outlets (i.e. wireless phones and landlines) were either damaged or overwhelmed in many disaster events hindering the efficient and timely transfer of information (Khaled and Mcheick, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4813236c-ed8b-4184-a67a-df0fec42b7ee","prefLabel":{"en":"Radio Blackout"},"altLabel":{"en":["D region absorption"]},"definition":{"en":"Radio blackout is a prolonged period of fading or faded radio communications, primarily in the high frequency range from ionospheric changes because of increased solar activity, in particular solar flares of C-class level or higher on the sunlit side of Earth (AMS, 2018).AMS, 2018. Radio blackout. American Meteorological Society (AMS). Accessed 15 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Radio blackouts due to solar flares can last from minutes to hours. Solar proton events can also cause long-term radio blackouts over the polar regions for days; these are known as polar cap absorption events (PCAs). Radio blackouts due to solar flares of the M-class level and higher are classified using the NOAA R-Scale (AMS, 2018). Radio blackouts due to solar flares of the M-class level and higher are classified using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration R-Scale (AMS, 2018). Solar flare intensities cover a large range and are classified in terms of peak emission in the 0.1–0.8 nm spectral band (soft X-rays) (NOAA, 2019). The X-ray flux levels start with the ‘A’ level (nominally starting at 10–8 W/m2). The next level, ten times higher, is the ‘B’ level (≥10–7 W/m2); followed by ‘C’ flares (10–6 W/m2), ‘M’ flares (10–5 W/m2), and finally ‘X’ flares (10–4 W/ m2). The UK Civil Aviation Authority reported that during moderate and above solar storms, high frequency communications on the sunlit side of the Earth are prejudiced through radio blackouts associated with sudden ionospheric disturbances due to the flare (UK CAA, 2020). They noted that at very high latitudes high frequency communications can be prejudiced as a consequence of the radiation storm which causes polar cap absorption, and at auroral latitudes rapid fading and further absorption can occur as a secondary effect associated with the geomagnetic storm. They reported that the various events can last for periods of minutes to hours. As a consequence, aircraft crossing the Atlantic have well established procedures for coping with a loss of high frequency communications which allows aircraft to continue their intended flight plan (UK CAA, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/102f925f-01b9-46af-b2c5-4a9f9a14692c","prefLabel":{"en":"Reservoir Flooding"},"altLabel":{"en":["Reservoir overtopping"]},"definition":{"en":"A reservoir is an artificial lake where water is stored (National Geographic, 2020). Reservoir flooding occurs when excess rainfall causes the lake level to rise or flood water to spill downstream.National Geographic, 2020. Reservoir. National Geographic Encyclopaedia. Accessed 30 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Reservoirs are artificially created lakes that are usually formed by building a dam across a river. When a dam fails, a large volume of water is suddenly released from the reservoir, resulting in downstream land or properties being flooded (Cheshire East Council, 2020). Metrics and numeric limits Not identified."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f359cac2-1ccf-48f7-a3c1-78cb556d294d","prefLabel":{"en":"Structural Failure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Progressive collapse","Structural collapse,","Structural defects,"]},"definition":{"en":"Structural failure corresponds to the exceedance of ultimate limit state in many of the load-carrying elements, which compromise the structural stability of the building (Rossetto, 2013).Rossetto, T., 2013. Building failure. In: Bobrowsky, P.T. (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Natural Hazards. Springer. Accessed 29 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Structural failure affects both standing and underground structures, including bridges, canals, viaducts, buildings, tunnels and pipelines. This exceedance may lead to more widespread progressive collapse. Progressive structural collapse is defined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as the spread of an initial local failure in a manner analogous to a chain reaction that leads to partial or total collapse of a building (Ellingwood et al., 2007). Different types of progressive collapse have been referred to as pancake, zipper, domino, section, instability and mixed (Starossek, 2007)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3e07f5aa-4275-401d-bb68-3a003da1f60d","prefLabel":{"en":"Bridge Failure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Bridge collapse"]},"definition":{"en":"Bridge failure is the inability of a bridge, or its components, to perform as specified by its design and construction requirements (Wardhana and Hadipriono, 2003). Note: This definition includes bridges that have totally collapsed, partially collapsed and those that experienced distress, such as, exhibiting excessive deformation.Wardhana, K. and F.C. Hadipriono, 2003. Analysis of recent bridge failures in the United States. Journal of performance of constructed facilities, 17:144-150.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Urbanisation leads to a continuous increase in demand for urban infrastructure, including bridges, highways and roads. The service life of infrastructure such as bridges is often shorter than expected due to natural phenomena and lack of sustainable concept in design and construction. Bridge failures are one of the most severe infrastructure problems faced today and pose an imminent threat to life and property. This reinforces the need to conduct sustainability assessments and optimal risk mitigation measures. A key aspect of engineering failures is the relationship between the failure and growth in engineering knowledge, which ensures the sustainable development of society (UNDESA, 2014). The United States National Bridge Inventory, reports that on average, 188 million trips take place across a structurally deficient bridge per day in the USA. Between 1989 and 2000, a total of 503 bridges failed, resulting in 76 fatalities and 161 injuries. Of the 503 failures, 386 occurred during bridge’s service life rather than during construction (US Department of Transportation, 2020). In August 2018, a large section of the Genoa Morandi bridge in Genoa Italy, collapsed resulting in 43 fatalities and required over 400 people to evacuate the surrounding area. The collapse led to widespread human displacement and created an economic disaster (Bellini and Calevo, 2019). Lack of maintenance work and/or bridge design have been suggested as the reason(s) for the bridge collapse."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f24dff44-c8ce-4e49-bd0b-a46d0dc44140","prefLabel":{"en":"Building Collapse"},"altLabel":{"en":["Catastrophic building failure"]},"definition":{"en":"Building collapse is the failure of load-bearing structural elements, causing a building to fall or fail catastrophically / catastrophic failure (adapted from US Department of Labor, no date).US Department of Labor, no date. Structural Collapse Guide. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Accessed 30 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Progressive structural collapse is defined by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as ‘the spread of an initial local failure in a manner analogous to a chain reaction that leads to partial or total collapse of a building’ (Ellingwood et al., 2007)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dd1d74f4-bdc4-45f1-a0fc-00abb29d2fb0","prefLabel":{"en":"Building, highrise, cladding"},"definition":{"en":"A building high-rise cladding fire hazard occurs when combustible materials such as cladding on a high-rise building greatly increases risk in the event of a fire and can have a catastrophic outcome (adapted from Rockpanel, no date)Rockpanel, no date. What is a high rise or high-risk building? Accessed 8 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Building height is an important factor in fire safety. The National Fire Protection Association defines a ‘high-rise building’ as a building greater than 75 feet (25 m) in height where the building height is measured from the lowest level of fire department vehicle access to the floor of the highest occupiable story (OSHA, 2003). The definition of what constitutes a high-rise building differs for many European countries. For example, in Germany, high-rise buildings are those 22 m and above, in Belgium 25 m and above, and in the UK 18 m and above. Despite the exact limit, it is indisputable that risk increases with increasing building height (Rockpanel, no date). Escaping from tall buildings is more difficult and takes longer than from a single-family house with one floor. Not only do highrise buildings have more inhabitants or people that work in them, but normal houses also have more escape routes (windows, doors) making escape easier when a fire occurs (Rockpanel, no date). Composite panels were first developed as a cost-effective, lightweight building material that could be rapidly installed for external cladding or facades of industrial buildings. Following considerable development over recent decades, these panels are now widely used across a vast range of buildings. The main advantage of composite panels is that they are inexpensive, can be easily cut and shaped in any size or dimension, are lightweight, and have excellent insulation characteristics. The products also come with a wide variety of surface finishes to suit architectural designs. The issue of combustible composite panels now concerns both private residences and commercial offices and factories (Chen et al., 2019). Recent high-profile building fires involving highly-combustible external cladding panels in Australia as well as Dubai, China, and the United Kingdom have created a heightened awareness by the public, government, and commercial bodies of the need to act on the risks associated with non-compliant building structures (Chen et al., 2019). The history of fire incidents involving combustible external composite panels goes back many decades and includes well documented events such as: the Knowsley Heights Fire in Liverpool UK, 1991; the Garnock Court Fire in Scotland, 1999; the Television Cultural Centre Fire in China, 2009; the Shanghai Apartment Fire in China, 2010; the Tecom Building Fire in Dubai, 2012; the Lacrosse Building Fire in Australia, 2014; The Torch in Dubai, 2015; The Address in Dubai, 2016; and Grenfell Tower in the UK, 2017 (Chen et al., 2019). The Grenfell Tower fire broke out on 14 June 2017 in the 24-storey Grenfell Tower block of public housing flats in North Kensington, West London, United Kingdom. The London Metropolitan Police confirmed that 80 people died as a result. Prior to the incident, Grenfell Tower underwent a major renovation on the exterior of the building which included new windows, a heating system, and the installation of a new exterior cladding for insulation and rainscreen. The fire is believed to have been started from a refrigerator in a 4th floor apartment kitchen. The residents were in the apartment at the time and called the fire brigade. Despite firefighters arriving 6 minutes after the alarm, the fire managed to spread to the exterior cladding before the firefighters suppressed the kitchen fire. The flames spread at an alarming rate up the exterior cladding and the fire quickly became out of control. In addition, the exterior fire re-entered the building, trapping a significant percentage of residents inside the building (Chen et al., 2019). In its report, the UK Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government stated that Aluminium Composite Material (ACM) cladding (and other metal composite material cladding) with an unmodified polyethylene filler (category 3) presents a significant fire hazard on residential buildings at any height with any form of insulation (Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4b931edd-a437-479f-9f3a-8a8c3154c606","prefLabel":{"en":"Dam Failure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Dam breach","Dam break,","Dam burst,","Outburst,"]},"definition":{"en":"Dam failure is the collapse or movement of part of a dam or its foundation, such that the dam cannot retain water. In general, a failure results in a release of large quantities of water imposing risks on the people or property downstream (ICOLD, 2015).ICOLD, 2015. Definition of a Large Dam. International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD). Accessed 8 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Dams are commonly categorised by a wide range of factors such as composition, height, and reservoir volume. Dams are typically constructed of earth, rock, concrete or tailings (chaff) from mining operations. As a function of upstream topography, even a small dam can impound or detain many acre-feet of millions of gallons of water (FEMA, 2017). The collapse or movement leading to a break in the dam, could produce life-threatening flood situations due to the high velocities and large volumes of water involved. In the event of a dam failure, the potential energy of water stored behind the dam can cause significant damage to property and livelihoods, as well as injuries and loss of life for people downstream of the dam (FEMA, 2017). Two summary examples of dam failures follow: A review of failure mode analysis and implications for current and future resilience of flood protection infrastructure in the United States has been undertaken (Primary and Secondary Causes of Dam Failure in the US, no date). Dam failures are classified by date, location, dam type, primary and secondary root causes, cost in year of incident, damage type, and fatalities. The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) is an international non-governmental organisation dedicated to sharing professional information and knowledge of the design, construction, maintenance, and impact of large dams. ICOLD has 100 member national committees and over 10,000 individual members, (ICOLD, no date). ICOLD has created a World Register of Dams. This is a global database on dams, established based on the national inventories sent by member countries of ICOLD. The register is continuously updated and includes information on more than 55,000 dams. In addition to the dam register, ICOLD has developed a technical dictionary. Between 2000 and 2009, more than 200 notable dam failures happened worldwide (Jonkman and Vrijling, 2008)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3d1f0e7a-ad56-4329-b612-f7be313e45a9","prefLabel":{"en":"Supply Chain Failure"},"altLabel":{"en":["SCM failure"]},"definition":{"en":"Supply chain failure refers to an event in the supply chain that disrupts the flow of materials on their journey from initial suppliers through to final customers (Walters, 2007).Waters, C.D.J., 2007. Supply Chain Risk Management: Vulnerability and Resilience in Logistics. Accessed 10 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["There is no single best definition of the term supply chain (UNECE, 2016). Supply chains have been defined as a network of connected and interdependent organizations mutually and co-operatively working together to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users (Worldwide Supply Chain Federation, no date). The Sendai Framework calls for more dedicated action needs to be focused on tackling underlying disaster risk drivers, such as the consequences of poverty and inequality, climate change and variability, unplanned and rapid urbanisation, poor land management and compounding factors such as demographic change, weak institutional arrangements, non-risk-informed policies, lack of regulation and incentives for private disaster risk reduction investment, complex supply chains, limited availability of technology, unsustainable uses of natural resources, declining ecosystems, pandemics and epidemics (UNDRR, 2015: para 6). The Sendai Framework identified priorities for action (Priority 3: Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience) for disaster risk reduction: c. To increase business resilience and protection of livelihoods and productive assets throughout the supply chains, ensure continuity of services and integrate disaster risk management into business models and practices (UNDRR, 2015). Failure of supply chains reduces resilience in disaster risk management. In today’s highly competitive global manufacturing industries, the reality facing most prime or focal manufacturing organisations around the world is one where resources have been reduced, inventory has been drained, technology spending curtailed, and processes that are not core to an organisation’s business have been scaled back and/or outsourced. In competitive global marketplaces prime manufacturers cannot afford to have any area of their operations compromised. Supply chain operations need to be robust and resilient in order to retain and increase market share. Supply chain failure is a phenomenon that can potentially cause major issues for many organisations, especially when failure becomes persistent (Karsten, 2018). International trade is vital to the world economy. Businesses that trade internationally are supported by interlinked global supply chains, which are vital to their competitiveness. But as some recent events highlight, these dynamic, complex systems are vulnerable to numerous risks. Because of their interconnectedness, even small, localised events can escalate rapidly and cause significant disruptions (WEF, 2014). Supply chain performance is critical to business success; hence, supply chain disturbances could have a significant effect and include panic buying which leads to a sudden increase in demand, having the potential to disrupt entire supply chains (Dulam et al., 2020). Critical infrastructure relies on supply chain supplies in order to provide essential services for community, national, regional and global resilience. This includes water, transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, educational facilities, hospitals and other health facilities that ensure all remain safe, effective and operational during and after disasters in order to provide lifesaving and essential services."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8c16dc50-cdfe-450d-af7c-5392798b6878","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban heat island (UHI)"},"definition":{"en":"The relative warmth of a city compared with surrounding rural areas, associated with heat trapping due to land use, the configuration and design of the built environment, including street layout and building size, the heat-absorbing properties of urban building materials, reduced ventilation, reduced greenery and water features, and domestic and industrial heat emissions generated directly from human activities."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5d8b7992-8afb-4f86-b268-41c421b6c31f","prefLabel":{"en":"Water Supply Failure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Water network failure"]},"definition":{"en":"Water supply failure is the physical shortage or scarcity in access of water supply due to the failure of institutions to ensure a regular supply or due to a lack of adequate infrastructure (adapted from UN-Water, no date).Alternative definition: Water supply systems are networks whose edges and nodes are pressure pipes and either pipe junctions, water sources or end-users. Water supply systems are designed to protect the customer from natural biological contamination, and the same systems have potential efficacy against deliberate biological and chemical contamination (adapted from Franchin and Cavalieri, 2013; and Jain et al., 2014).Water supply failure is the physical shortage or scarcity in access of water supply due to the failure of institutions to ensure a regular supply or due to a lack of adequate infrastructure (adapted from UN-Water, no date).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A water supply system loss of safety may result from: failure of its individual subsystem or elements such as water intakes, pumping stations, the water distribution network or its utilities; failure of other technical systems such as sewerage, energy, water structures; extreme natural hazards such as floods and droughts; poor organisational structures; and from incidental pollution of water sources (Pietrucha-Urbanik and Tchórzewska-Cieślak, 2018). A water supply system failure generally results in a decreased amount of water supplied with inadequate parameters such as low pressure which could lead to water scarcity. Public water system bodies have the responsibility of maintaining physical and human infrastructure to supply water and are often bound by regulations. However, water use has been increasing globally at more than twice the rate of population growth over the past century. Some regions are reaching the limit at which services can be sustainably delivered. In the latter half of the twentieth century, there was an increase in major accidents and disasters relating to the functioning of public water supply systems in rural, urban and industrial areas (Pietrucha-Urbanik, 2015). Failures in water supply systems, treatment processes, and distribution networks can often lead to water contamination incidents, some of which result in disease outbreaks. As the global population rises, there is a need to balance competing demands on water resources to provide basic necessities for operation and survival. In order to keep up with demand, water supply systems require periodic inspections, maintenance and repairs. Inspections allow for early detection of potential damage, with planning for repair to prevent negative and ongoing consequences associated with the lack of water supply (Pietrucha-Urbanik and Tchórzewska-Cieślak, 2018). Recent practice to reduce the number of emergency failures, has been the implementation of preventative renewal. This identifies the elements within the water supply systems that are most vulnerable to failure and ensures that they are replaced, thereby reducing the probability of failure (Pietrucha-Urbanik and Tchórzewska-Cieślak, 2018). This has largely been applied for aging infrastructure. Actions taken to reduce the number of water supply system failures include but are not limited to: technical renewal of pipelines (renovations, maintenance and diagnostics); replacement of pipes and fittings; improvements in detecting places of leaks; network pressure limitation to the lowest permissible value; and proper operation, design and execution of water supply systems."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3ecedc41-8ac1-4736-93f4-a422ac2d9eb0","prefLabel":{"en":"Transnational climate impacts"},"altLabel":{"en":["transnational climate change impacts"]},"definition":{"en":"Transnational climate impacts reach across borders, affecting one country – and requiring adaptation there – as a result of climate change or climate-induced extreme events in another country."},"scopeNote":{"en":["On the topic of transboundary/transnational: While “transboundary” implies a specific focus on the crossing of a border, “transnational” more clearly references the role of the nation state and often invokes the political scientific roots of the term to mean including at least one non-state actor (Risse-Kappen, 1995). Benzie et al. (2017) identified the same dichotomy and conducted a survey of adaptation experts, where respondents were asked how confusing or meaningful various terms were. Survey results suggested that the term “transboundary” was less confusing than “transnational,” but also potentially less accurate."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9ea58ed7-142f-4e07-9f1e-e6baa52d8491","prefLabel":{"en":"Incentive mechanisms for disaster resilient infrastructure"},"definition":{"en":"Methods and instruments that promote and/or facilitate the upgrading of existing infrastructure and the building of new resilient infrastructure (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Incentive mechanisms may be promoted by the public and private sectors and in joint public-private ventures. This includes incentives provided by finance, insurance, real estate and government stakeholders. \n\nIncentives can be built into mortgages, insurance policies, tax incentives, grants, and other mechanisms.\n\nIncentives are necessary to promote an increased investment in corrective and prospective disaster risk reduction, that reduces overall societal costs of disasters in the short, medium and long terms."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3f88490f-4569-46ef-993e-c45a66ec76a9","prefLabel":{"en":"Inclusion"},"altLabel":{"en":["inclusiveness","inclusivity"]},"definition":{"en":"Inclusion means creating an environment where everyone feels welcome and valued. An inclusive environment can only be created once we are more aware of our unconscious biases, and have learned how to manage them (LUNZ Hub, no date)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6460d3d1-1238-4a1a-b51b-292aaa67ad44","prefLabel":{"en":"Social inclusion"},"definition":{"en":"A process of improving the terms of participation in society, particularly for people who are disadvantaged, through enhancing opportunities, access to resources and respect for rights (UN DESA 2016)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ef169a42-42a7-4a38-a2cb-a46c42fd3149","prefLabel":{"en":"Income"},"definition":{"en":"The maximum amount that a household, or other unit, can consume without reducing its real net worth. Total income is the broadest measure of income and refers to regular receipts such as wages and salaries, income from self-employment, interest and dividends from invested funds, pensions or other benefits from social insurance, and other current transfers receivable. OECD (2003)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/22ac1058-2b3c-469b-868f-7568ba2a22ef","prefLabel":{"en":"Incoming solar radiation"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/367900db-06f7-4423-9c93-66d7481a4e09","prefLabel":{"en":"Indian Ocean basin (IOB) mode"},"definition":{"en":"A mode of interannual variability characterized by a temporal alternation of basin-wide warming and cooling of the Indian Ocean sea surface. It mostly develops in response to El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), but often persists after ENSO’s equatorial eastern Pacific signal has dissipated. The IOB affects atmospheric circulation, temperature, and precipitation in South, South East, and East Asia as well as Africa, and modulates tropical cyclone activity in the north western Pacific. See Section AIV.2.4 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/21b1f0ae-cc11-4302-a08f-7bef7076a214","prefLabel":{"en":"Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)"},"definition":{"en":"A mode of interannual variability that features an east–west dipole of sea surface temperature anomalies in the tropical Indian Ocean. Its positive phase shows concurrent sea surface cooling off Sumatra and Java and warming off Somalia in the west, combined with anomalous surface easterlies along the equator, while the opposite anomalies are seen in the negative phase. The IOD typically develops in boreal summer and matures in boreal autumn and controls part of the rainfall interannual variability in Australia, South Eastern Asia and Eastern Africa. See Section AIV.2.4 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42673e39-ec0f-4da0-9348-db3450984685","prefLabel":{"en":"Indigenous Peoples"},"definition":{"en":"Indigenous Peoples and Nations are those that, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present principally non-dominant sectors of society and are often determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and common law system. Cobo (1987)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3e097b39-4a69-42a3-a175-5187a21d9e67","prefLabel":{"en":"Indirect emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Emissions that are a consequence of the activities within well-defined boundaries of, for instance, a region, an economic sector, a company or process, but which occur outside the specified boundaries. For example, emissions are described as indirect if they relate to the use of heat but physically arise outside the boundaries of the heat user, or to electricity production but physically arise outside of the boundaries of the power supply sector."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/64e2da3c-fd76-4e31-84a5-459acdd96bad","prefLabel":{"en":"Indirect land use change (iLUC)"},"definition":{"en":"Indirect land use change refers to shifts in land use induced by a change in the production level of an agricultural product elsewhere, often mediated by markets or driven by policies. For example, if agricultural land is diverted to fuel production, forest clearance may occur elsewhere to replace the former agricultural production."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5f43f37f-b89c-48bf-b66c-d9da95c9765f","prefLabel":{"en":"Industrial revolution"},"definition":{"en":"A period of rapid industrial growth with far-reaching social and economic consequences, beginning in Britain during the second half of the 18th century and spreading to Europe and later to other countries including the United States. The invention of the steam engine was an important trigger of this development. The industrial revolution marks the beginning of a strong increase in the use of fossil fuels, initially coal, and hence emission of carbon dioxide (CO2)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/80e162f9-4e7b-48e2-b326-f867f432f787","prefLabel":{"en":"Information sharing"},"definition":{"en":"The provision of balanced and objective information to the public. In the context of policy or public services, the aim is to enable people to understand a service, a problem, changes, decisions, etc. (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Information provision tends to be a one-way form of communication e.g. from organisation to citizens. It differs from consultation in that information is disseminated but responses are not invited (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022). \n\nExamples of information sharing include news; public announcements; budget\ninformation when approved for disclosure; and publications when approved for release (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ceda0dcb-803c-4c17-acfc-b5798701e197","prefLabel":{"en":"Infrastructure interdependencies"},"definition":{"en":"Functional linkage(s) within and across different infrastructure sectors or systems (e.g., energy, transportation, telecommunications, water/wastewater, solid waste and food) (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Interdependencies are often seen to increase the risk of failure or disruption in multiple infrastructures which may lead to cascading impacts or escalation of impact. \n \nIdentifying infrastructure interdependencies is a necessary step for building resilient infrastructure systems."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7b436fbf-cef3-4b27-af44-7bad6accd8c9","prefLabel":{"en":"Infrastructure lifecycle"},"definition":{"en":"The series of stages during the lifetime of an infrastructure asset, starting from planning, prioritisation and funding to the design, procurement, construction, operation, maintenance and decommissioning (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4facce89-a812-40e5-9d97-f58ae008da7e","prefLabel":{"en":"Infrastructure linkages"},"definition":{"en":"The notion that infrastructure systems may be highly interconnected and mutually dependent in complex ways. Interlinkages are a significant source of systemic risks, which are increasingly transboundary and transnational (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e5516314-b2ab-484c-850c-df50dc938057","prefLabel":{"en":"Institution"},"definition":{"en":"A structure, a mechanism of social order or cooperation, which governs the behaviour of a group of individuals within a human community. Institutions are intended to be functionally relevant for an extended period, able to help transcend individual interests and help govern cooperative human behaviour. The term can be extended to also cover regulations, technology standards, certification and the like."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17232657-3f23-42c5-8897-35b0716478ee","prefLabel":{"en":"Insurance/reinsurance"},"definition":{"en":"A family of financial instruments for sharing and transferring risk among a pool of at-risk households, businesses and/or governments (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/222c59d7-1ffe-442d-8e52-f38f6536757f","prefLabel":{"en":"Integrated assessment scenario ensemble"},"definition":{"en":"A set of modelled scenarios from an intercomparison of integrated assessment models (IAMs) based on a systematic variation of harmonised scenario designs."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/99b2e062-a922-4c89-bec6-6106e860d070","prefLabel":{"en":"Interdisciplinary"},"altLabel":{"en":["interdisciplinary approaches"]},"definition":{"en":"Interdisciplinary studies address specific real-world problems, bringing people and ideas together from different disciplines to collectively frame a problem, agree on a methodological approach, and analyse data in an integrated manner (Adapted from Hammer and Söderqvist (2001) and Stock and Burton (2011), and references therein, in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/376c5dd4-0618-435e-af24-f6a91fd3946c","prefLabel":{"en":"Internal climate variability"},"definition":{"en":"Deviations of climate variables from a given mean state (including the occurrence of extremes, etc.) at all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be intrinsic, due to fluctuations of processesinternal to the climate system. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8aaa2f6d-a240-4eed-8d32-fdaa3b77efd7","prefLabel":{"en":"Internet of Things (IoT)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ambient intelligence,","Industrial Internet (II),","Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT),","Internet of Everything (IoE),","Smart dust","Web of Things (WoT),"]},"definition":{"en":"The Internet of Things (IoT) is a global infrastructure for the information society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on existing and evolving interoperable information and communication technologies (ITU, 2012).NOTE 1: Through the exploitation of identification, data capture, processing and communication capabilities, the IoT makes full use of things to offer services to all types of applications, while ensuring that security and privacy requirements are fulfilled.NOTE 2: From a broader perspective, the IoT can be perceived as a vision with technological and societal implications.The IoT is a relatively new technology that is a hazard if a data security or breach occurs.The Internet of Things (IoT) is a global infrastructure for the information society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on existing and evolving interoperable information and communication technologies (ITU, 2012).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Device: With regard to the Internet of Things (IoT), a device is a piece of equipment with the mandatory capabilities of communication and the optional capabilities of sensing, actuation, data capture, data storage and data processing (ITU, 2012). Thing: With regard to the IoT, a ‘thing’ is an object of the physical world (physical things) or the information world (virtual things), which is capable of being identified and integrated into communication networks (ITU, 2012). Security: In the IoT, every ‘thing’ is connected which results in significant security threats, such as threats towards confidentiality, authenticity and integrity of both data and services. A critical example of security requirements is the need to integrate different security policies and techniques related to the variety of devices and user networks in the IoT (ITU, 2012). Privacy protection: Privacy protection needs to be supported in the IoT. Many things have owners and users. Sensed data of things may contain private information concerning their owners or users. The IoT needs to support privacy protection during data transmission, aggregation, storage, mining and processing. Privacy protection should not set a barrier to data source authentication (ITU, 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/846ae7a1-503a-486e-bb3c-e4967daf9129","prefLabel":{"en":"Interoperability"},"definition":{"en":"The ability to work together with other systems or pieces of equipment. The degree to which two products, programs, etc. can be used together, or the quality of being able to be used together (Cambridge Business English Dictionary, Cambridge University Press)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/efba2fc6-7dd2-4695-8b39-1ca692ca4d60","prefLabel":{"en":"Intervention"},"altLabel":{"en":["interventions"]},"definition":{"en":"Commonly used in design practices to encourage the move away from 'solutions', recognising that complex problems cannot be 'solved' through single soltuions but instead require multiple efforts or interventions at different points. In DRR - 'Disaster risk reduction requires the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political, and institutional measures which prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery, and thus strengthen resilience' (UNDRR, 2015).\n\nSource: UNDRR, 2015.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c8581124-6d5d-4b9a-ab24-92839c35fe95","prefLabel":{"en":"Ionospheric Storms"},"definition":{"en":"An ionospheric storm is defined as turbulence in the F region of the ionosphere, usually due to a sudden burst of radiation from the Sun (WMO, 1992).NB. The F region is the highest region of the ionosphere, at altitudes greater than 160 km (100 miles).An ionospheric storm is defined as turbulence in the F region of the ionosphere, usually due to a sudden burst of radiation from the Sun (WMO, 1992).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["‘Ionospheric storm’ is the term used to denote the major changes that take place in the ionosphere as a result of geomagnetic activity. Ionospheric storms are closely associated with magnetic storms and can lead to severe disruptions of radio-wave propagation, particularly at high latitudes (AMS, 2012). The Ionosphere is part of Earth’s upper atmosphere, between 80 and about 600 km where extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and x-ray solar radiation ionise the atoms and molecules. The ionosphere is important because it reflects and modifies radio waves used for communication, navigation and radar tracking of space objects. Other phenomena such as energetic charged particles and cosmic rays also have an ionising effect and can contribute to the ionosphere (NOAA, 2019a). The atmospheric atoms and molecules are impacted by the high energy EUV and X-ray photons from the sun. The photon flux at these wavelengths varies by nearly a factor of ten over the 11-year solar cycle. The density of the ionosphere changes accordingly. Due to spectral variability of the solar radiation and the density of various constituents in the atmosphere, layers are created within the ionosphere, called the D, E, and F-layers. Other solar phenomena, such as flares, and changes in the solar wind and geomagnetic storms also affect the state of the ionosphere. Since the largest amount of ionisation is caused by solar irradiance, the night-side of the Earth, and the pole pointed away from the sun (depending on the season) have much less ionisation than the day-side of the Earth, and the pole pointing towards the sun (NOAA, 2019b). In general, there are two phases of an ionospheric storm, an initial increase in electron density (the positive phase) lasting a few hours, followed by a decrease lasting a few days. During night-time this decrease can result in the effective disappearance of the ionosphere and hence is another process that can cause High-frequency (HF) blackout. At low latitudes only the positive phase is usually seen. Individual storms can vary, and their behaviour depends on geomagnetic latitude, season, and local time (NASA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/47591fc5-2ccb-464e-9851-68fc084fceb4","prefLabel":{"en":"Irreversibility"},"definition":{"en":"A perturbed state of a dynamical system is defined as irreversible on a given time scale if the recovery from this state due to natural processes takes substantially longer than the time scale of interest."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/298811fb-9607-4836-a61f-abcacfdb0213","prefLabel":{"en":"Isostatic or Isostasy"},"definition":{"en":"Isostasy refers to the response of the Earth to changes in surface load. It includes the deformational and gravitational response. This response is elastic on short time scales, as in the Earth–ocean response to recent changes in mountain glaciation, or viscoelastic on longer time scales, as in the response to the last deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/28276bf8-10e1-4014-a025-b7dfbd14304c","prefLabel":{"en":"Isotopes"},"definition":{"en":"Atoms of the same chemical element that have the same the number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons. Some proton–neutron configurations are stable (stable isotopes), others are unstable undergoing spontaneous radioactive decay (radioisotopes). Most elements have more than one stable isotope. Isotopes can be used to trace transport processes or to study processes that change the isotopic ratio. Radioisotopes provide, in addition, time information that can be used for radiometric dating."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a974d81d-48d5-4118-afa9-2d9bb94eb685","prefLabel":{"en":"Justice"},"definition":{"en":"Justice is concerned with setting out the moral or legal principles of fairness and equity in the way people are treated, often based on the ethics and values of society."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e25214c9-dc89-4f86-80ae-58970db33dcf","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate justice"},"definition":{"en":"Justice that links development and human rights to achieve a human-centred approach to addressing climate change, safeguarding the rights of the most vulnerable people and sharing the burdens and benefits of climate change and its impacts equitably and fairly (MRFCJ, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bc868ae5-af3f-4ae4-b13a-0ce9ca09749c","prefLabel":{"en":"Procedural justice"},"definition":{"en":"Justice in the way outcomes are brought about including who participates and is heard in the processes of decision-making."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/396cc496-06cb-4cd4-bfc1-856450ceeba6","prefLabel":{"en":"Social justice"},"definition":{"en":"Just or fair relations within society that seek to address the distribution of wealth, access to resources, opportunity, and support according to principles of justice and fairness."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aac8991d-e361-4807-b570-885acd907f8d","prefLabel":{"en":"Kaya identity"},"definition":{"en":"In this identity, global emissions are equal to the population size, multiplied by per capita output (gross world product), multiplied by the energy intensity of production, multiplied by the carbon intensity of energy."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8e014a6a-b54e-4ccb-ace2-6e7728b0b874","prefLabel":{"en":"Knowledge brokering"},"altLabel":{"en":["knowledge broker"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cbec0e99-cda4-499a-8f4d-19cbe3314cba","prefLabel":{"en":"Knowledge exchange"},"definition":{"en":"Knowledge exchange conveys how knowledge and ideas move between the knowledge source and the potential users of that knowledge (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC,2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["In academia, knowledge exchange often refers to the exchange of information and expertise with businesses, society, and/or the economy (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC,2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d8253d1a-9e81-4cf7-b8c9-a919aa69a7d5","prefLabel":{"en":"Knowledge management"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8918f310-bc36-4465-a902-459a4f932d79","prefLabel":{"en":"Knowledge systems"},"definition":{"en":"A network of actors connected by social relationships, formal or informal, that dynamically combine knowing, doing, and learning to bring about specific actions for sustainable development’ (van Kerkhoff and Szlezák, 2010)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Relationships within knowledge systems shape the flows of knowledge, credibility and power within those systems (Cornell et al., 2013)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0eb21562-ceae-4ce0-a02c-8c154c619d15","prefLabel":{"en":"Land cover"},"definition":{"en":"The biophysical coverage of land (e.g., bare soil, rocks, forests, buildings and roads or lakes). Land cover is often categorised in broad land-cover classes (e.g., deciduous forest, coniferous forest, mixed forest, grassland bare ground). [Note: In some literature, land cover and land use are used interchangeably, but the two represent distinct classification systems. For example, the land cover class woodland can be under various land uses such as livestock grazing, recreation, conservation, or wood harvest.]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eccf4eb4-7107-4087-8eaf-1e4ab990a26e","prefLabel":{"en":"Land degradation neutrality"},"definition":{"en":"A state whereby the amount and quality of land resources necessary to support ecosystem functions and services and enhance food security remain stable or increase within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems (UNCCD, 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0edd04af-91f5-440a-861a-aa10b84d7f9b","prefLabel":{"en":"Land management"},"definition":{"en":"The sum of land-use practices (e.g., sowing, fertilising, weeding, harvesting, thinning and clear-cutting) that take place within broader land-use categories (Pongratz et al., 2018)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7c7a17da-e54b-43df-8fc3-43edf93a389e","prefLabel":{"en":"Land management change"},"definition":{"en":"A change in land management that occurs within a land-use category."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/64b057c6-963c-4ec8-9ece-a4fa7516e83f","prefLabel":{"en":"Land potential"},"definition":{"en":"The inherent, long-term potential of the land to sustainably generate ecosystem services, which reflects the capacity and resilience of the land-based natural capital, in the face of ongoing environmental change (UNEP, 2016)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b9f6155f-ac33-4f03-94a9-3c908c023e9b","prefLabel":{"en":"Sustainable land management"},"definition":{"en":"The stewardship and use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants, to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ef4f9018-9585-43dd-bcf1-003297dcbf2c","prefLabel":{"en":"Land rehabilitation"},"definition":{"en":"Direct or indirect actions undertaken with the aim of reinstating a level of ecosystem functionality, where the goal is provision of goods and services rather than ecological restoration (McDonald et al., 2016)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/92c2a3c9-6b8d-45bd-9f29-862257464bf7","prefLabel":{"en":"Land restoration"},"definition":{"en":"The process of assisting the recovery of land from a degraded state (IPBES, 2018; McDonald et al. 2016)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c044492c-91e1-49d8-9dfd-4d0bffe17c7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Land surface air temperature (LSAT)"},"definition":{"en":"The near-surface air temperature over land, typically measured at 1.25–2 m above the ground using standard meteorological equipment."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4579c549-6c98-463d-9cef-8ee206803043","prefLabel":{"en":"Land use change (LUC)"},"definition":{"en":"Land use change refers to a change in the use or management of land by humans, which may lead to a change in land cover. Land cover and LUC may have an impact on the surface albedo, evapotranspiration, sources and sinks of GHGs, or other properties of the climate system and may thus give rise to radiative forcing and/or other impacts on climate, locally or globally."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d44c83ff-f65f-4d44-97c0-9e2cb981a82a","prefLabel":{"en":"Land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF)"},"definition":{"en":"A greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of GHGs resulting from direct human-induced land use, land use change and forestry activities excluding agricultural emissions."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb92ecc5-c1af-40af-840a-207e05747bf0","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest"},"definition":{"en":"A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions of the term forest are in use throughout the world, reflecting wide differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure and economics. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest in the context of National GHG inventories, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC 2006, 2019; UNFCCC, 2021a, b).]"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3eb866d1-69a8-4a85-9e1f-5b8fdcc6ffc9","prefLabel":{"en":"Afforestation"},"definition":{"en":"Conversion to forest of land that historically has not contained forests. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC 2006, 2019; UNFCCC 2021a, b).]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b6a353d3-37cc-4c46-b144-0995fc4864e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Deforestation"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Deforestation is the conversion of forest to other land use independently of whether human-induced or not (FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Terms and Definitions FRA 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 188. Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has monitored the world’s forests at 5 to 10 year intervals since 1946. The recent Global Forest Resources Assessments have been produced every five years in an attempt to provide a consistent approach to describing the world’s forests and how they are changing (FAO, 2020a). Deforestation includes the permanent reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold. It also includes areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs, mining and urban areas. The term specifically excludes areas where the trees have been removed as a result of harvesting or logging, and where the forest is expected to regenerate naturally or with the aid of silvicultural measures. The term also includes areas where, for example, the impact of disturbance, over-utilisation or changing environmental conditions affects the forest to an extent that it cannot sustain a canopy cover above the 10% threshold (FAO, 2020b). Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates and contribute significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades (FAO, 2020a). Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990 (FAO, 2020a). Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest degradation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40% of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33% (FAO and UNEP, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1e82b983-8590-486c-96ca-335c3f4b231a","prefLabel":{"en":"Reforestation"},"definition":{"en":"Conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but that has been converted to some other use.[Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC, 2006, 2019; UNFCCC 2021a, b).]"}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cfc1bc2b-cfe0-497a-a120-1800f685d5e3","prefLabel":{"en":"Land water storage (LWS)"},"definition":{"en":"Land water storage (LWS) includes all surface water, soil moisture, groundwater storage and snow, but excludes water stored in glaciers and ice sheets. Changes in LWS can be caused either by direct human intervention in the water cycle (e.g., storage of water in reservoirs by building dams in rivers, groundwater extraction from groundwater reservoirs for consumption and irrigation, or deforestation) or by climate variations (e.g., changes in the amount of water in endorheic lakes and wetlands, the canopy, the soil, the permafrost and the snowpack). Land water storage changes caused by climate variations may also be indirectly affected by anthropogenic influences."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/56f699c6-6b41-4bd6-975b-200ca838f8c6","prefLabel":{"en":"Land-cover change"},"definition":{"en":"Change from one land cover class to another, due to change in land use or change in natural conditions (Pongratz et al., 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a714f2a7-c64d-439e-a565-9216fc8febde","prefLabel":{"en":"Landfill"},"altLabel":{"en":["Dump waste (including fly-tip)","Dumping ground,","Dumpsite (including engineered dumpsite),","Garbage tip,","Rubbish pile,","Waste disposal site,"]},"definition":{"en":"Landfilling is the final placement of waste into or onto the land in a controlled way. The definition covers both landfilling at internal sites (i.e., where a generator of waste is carrying out its own waste disposal at the place of generation) and at external sites (United Nations, 2016).United Nations, 2016. Environmental Indicators: Waste. United Nations Statistics Division. Accessed 19 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The following distinction between landfill and dumpsite is provided by the Joint United Nations Environment Programme / United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Environment Unit (Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, 2011): Other mechanisms for defining landfilling exist. The Basel Convention assists in defining these. Waste deposits into or onto land are used for the disposal of waste in most countries. If these deposits are not designed and operated in an environmentally sound manner, they can present risks to human health and the environment (Basel Convention Secretariat, 2019). Specially engineered landfill (e.g., placement into lined discrete cells which are capped and isolated from one another and the environment, etc) allows for the final disposal of hazardous wastes and other wastes in an environmentally sound manner with limited impact to water, air, soil, plants or animals, and for control over noise or odours without adverse effects on the landscape, places of special interest and the environment (Basel Convention Secretariat, 2019). The Basel Convention Technical Guidelines on Specially Engineered Landfill (Basel Convention Secretariat, 2002) also identify the following types of landfill: historic, closed sites; historic, still operating; green field sites; specific operational types of landfill (containment sites and landfills providing for attenuated release); specially engineered landfill."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ce9540ac-889a-4e85-9462-94faeac5f869","prefLabel":{"en":"Large-scale"},"definition":{"en":"The climate system involves process interactions from the micro- to the global-scale. Any threshold for defining ‘large-scale’ is arbitrary. Understanding of large-scale climate variability and change requires knowledge of both the response to external forcings and the role of internal variability. Many external forcings have substantial hemispheric or continental scale variations. Modes of climate variability are driven by ocean-basin-scale processes. Thus we define large-scale to include ocean-basin and continental scales as well as hemispheric and global scales."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/14eb2625-b2ad-4d93-8e2f-3c2d71ae16d8","prefLabel":{"en":"Lassa Fever (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Lassa fever is a zoonotic disease associated with acute and potentially fatal haemorrhagic illness caused by Lassa virus. It is associated with epidemics particularly where it is endemic in Benin, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Sierra Leone, and Nigeria (WHO, 2017).WHO, 2017. Lassa fever. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 3 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Although first described in the 1950s, the virus causing Lassa disease was not identified until 1969. The virus is a singlestranded RNA virus belonging to the virus family Arenaviridae. Lassa fever is a zoonotic disease, meaning that humans become infected from contact with infected animals. The animal reservoir, or host, of Lassa virus is a rodent of the genus Mastomys, commonly known as the ‘multimammate rat’. Mastomys rats infected with Lassa virus do not become ill, but can shed the virus in their urine and faeces (WHO, 2017). People at greatest risk are those living in rural areas where Mastomys are usually found, especially in communities with poor sanitation or crowded living conditions. Lassa fever occurs in all age groups and both sexes. About 80% of people who become infected with Lassa virus have no symptoms. One in five infections results in severe disease, where the virus affects several organs such as the liver, spleen and kidneys. Because the clinical course of the disease is so variable, detection of the disease in affected patients has been difficult. When the disease is confirmed to be present in a community, however, prompt isolation of affected patients, good infection prevention and control practices, and rigorous contact tracing can stop outbreaks (WHO, 2017). The incubation period of Lassa fever ranges from 6 to 21 days. The onset of the disease, when it is symptomatic, is usually gradual, starting with fever, general weakness, and malaise. After a few days, headache, sore throat, muscle pain, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, cough, and abdominal pain may follow. In severe cases facial swelling, fluid in the lung cavity, bleeding from the mouth, nose, vagina or gastrointestinal tract and low blood pressure may develop. Shock, seizures, tremor, disorientation, and coma may be seen in the later stages. Death usually occurs within 14 days of onset in fatal cases. Deafness occurs in 25% of patients who survive the disease. In half of these cases, hearing returns partially after one to three months. Transient hair loss and gait disturbance may occur during recovery. The disease is especially severe late in pregnancy, with maternal death and/or foetal loss occurring in more than 80% of cases during the third trimester (WHO, 2017). Transmission is primarily from direct and indirect contact with the urine or faeces of infected Mastomys rats, usually from contaminated surfaces, food and water. Humans usually become infected with Lassa virus from exposure to urine or faeces of infected Mastomys rats. Lassa virus may also be spread between humans through direct contact with the blood, urine, faeces, or other bodily secretions of a person infected with Lassa fever. There is no epidemiological evidence supporting airborne spread between humans. Person-to-person transmission occurs in both community and health-care settings, where the virus may be spread by contaminated medical equipment, such as re-used needles. Sexual transmission of Lassa virus has been reported (WHO, 2017). Lassa fever is difficult to diagnose because the symptoms are non-specific. Definitive diagnosis requires viral and serological testing available only in reference laboratories. Isolation of the virus is usually done from blood, urine or throat washings (WHO, 2017). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published information on case definitions and classification for viral haemorrhagic fevers (CDC, 2011)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/521bc328-ab3a-4ec4-9cc0-3134a2c74354","prefLabel":{"en":"Last millennium"},"definition":{"en":"The interval of the Common Era (CE) between 1001 and 2000 CE. Encompasses the Little Ice Age, a roughly defined period characterized by multiple expansions of mountain glaciers worldwide, the timing of which differs among regions but generally occurred between 1400 CE and 1900 CE. The last millennium also mostly encompasses the Medieval Warm Period (also called the Medieval Climate Anomaly), a roughly defined period of relatively warm conditions or other climate excursions such as extensive drought, the timing and magnitude of which differ among regions, but generally occurred between 900 and 1400 CE. Transient climate model experiments by the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) for the last millennium extend from 850–1849 CE."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0af7b89f-e9d5-40ce-b5d3-a62e0787e0e2","prefLabel":{"en":"Leakage"},"definition":{"en":"The effects of policies that result in a displacement of the environmental impact, thereby counteracting the intended effects of the initial policies."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7f804d87-fdd9-4f8d-b313-1c15c5ba06e1","prefLabel":{"en":"Leapfrogging"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of developing countries to bypass intermediate technologies and jump straight to advanced clean technologies. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1953f0aa-b9fe-4c2f-9cb6-379a4e2dcc88","prefLabel":{"en":"Least Developed Countries (LDCs)"},"definition":{"en":"A list of countries designated by the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC) as meeting three criteria: (1) a low income criterion below a certain threshold of gross national income per capita of between USD 750 and USD 900, (2) a human resource weakness based on indicators of health, education and adult literacy, and (3) an economic vulnerability weakness based on indicators on instability of agricultural production, instability of export of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration and the handicap of economic smallness. Countries in this category are eligible for a number of programmes focused on assisting countries most in need. These privileges include certain benefits under the articles of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ecb0263c-6a52-4623-ae23-50fdae3d9337","prefLabel":{"en":"Leprosy"},"altLabel":{"en":["Hansen’s disease"]},"definition":{"en":"Leprosy is a curable infectious disease, endemic in many countries, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae (M. leprae). It mainly affects the skin, peripheral nerves, mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and eyes. Untreated, it can lead to permanent disability (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Leprosy. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 4 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Leprosy is an age-old disease, described in the literature of ancient civilizations. Leprosy has struck fear into human beings for thousands of years and was well recognised in the oldest civilizations of China, Egypt and India. A cumulative total of the number of individuals who, over the millennia, have suffered its chronic course of incurable disfigurement and physical disabilities can never be calculated (WHO, no date a). Since ancient times, leprosy has been regarded by the community as a contagious, mutilating and incurable disease. There are many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America with a significant number of leprosy cases. It is estimated that there are between one and two million people visibly and irreversibly disabled due to past and present leprosy who need to be cared for by the community in which they live (WHO, no date a). Throughout history, people afflicted have often been ostracised by their communities and families (WHO, 2019). Mycobacterium leprae multiplies slowly, meaning that symptom onset can range from one to twenty years from infection, with an average incubation period of five years. Clinical presentation is characterised by progressive and permanent damage to the skin, nerves, limbs and eyes if untreated, leading to deformities and disabilities. The exact mechanism of transmission of leprosy is not known (WHO, no date b). Laboratory diagnosis is via the identification of acid-fast bacilli in a slit-skin smear. Other tests (such as serological markers) are associated with low diagnostic accuracy (WHO, 2018). The first breakthrough for leprosy treatment occurred in the 1940s with the development of the medicine dapsone. The duration of treatment lasted many years, often a lifetime, making compliance difficult. In the 1960s, M. leprae started to develop resistance to dapsone, the only known anti-leprosy medicine at that time. In the early 1960s, rifampicin and clofazimine were discovered and found to be effective (WHO, 2019). In 1981, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended multidrug therapy. The currently recommended multidrug therapy regimen consists of medicines: dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine. This treatment lasts for six months for pauci-bacillary and 12 months for multi-bacillary cases. Multidrug therapy kills the pathogen and cures the patient. Since 1995, the WHO has provided multidrug therapy for leprosy free of cost. Free multidrug therapy was initially funded by The Nippon Foundation, and since 2000 it is donated through an agreement with Novartis until at least 2020. More than 16 million leprosy patients have been treated with multidrug therapy over the past 20 years (WHO, 2019). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has published information on Hansen’s Disease/Leprosy case definitions (CDC, 2013)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1a94d7b2-d967-4967-a7bb-166d1b0f3894","prefLabel":{"en":"Leptospirosis (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by pathogenic Spirochaetes of the genus Leptospira. These bacteria called leptospires affect both humans and animals. Humans become infected through direct contact with the urine of infected animals or with a urinecontaminated environment. It is a zoonosis. Human-to-human transmission occurs only very rarely (adapted from WHO and ILS, 2003 and WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Leptospirosis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 6 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Leptospires are bacteria which can be either pathogenic (i.e., having the potential to cause disease in animals and humans) or saprophytic (i.e., free living and generally considered not to cause disease) (WHO, no date). Pathogenic leptospires are maintained in nature in the renal tubules of certain animals. Saprophytic leptospires are found in many types of wet or humid environments ranging from surface waters and moist soil to tap water. Saprophytic halophilic (salt-loving) leptospires are found in seawater (WHO and ILS, 2003). The bacteria enter the body through cuts or abrasions on the skin, or through the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose and eyes. Person-to-person transmission is rare (WHO, 2020a). In the early stages of the disease, symptoms include high fever, severe headache, muscle pain, chills, redness of the eyes, abdominal pain, jaundice, haemorrhages in the skin and mucous membranes, vomiting, diarrhoea, and rash (WHO, 2020a). The clinical manifestations are highly variable. Typically, the disease presents in four broad clinical categories: a mild, influenza-like illness; Weil’s syndrome characterised by jaundice, renal failure, haemorrhage and myocarditis with arrhythmias; meningitis/meningoencephalitis; and pulmonary haemorrhage with respiratory failure (YANG, 2007). Clinical diagnosis is difficult because of the varied and non-specific presentation. Confusion with other diseases, such as dengue and other haemorrhagic fevers, is particularly common in the tropics. It may present with a wide variety of clinical manifestations ranging from a mild ‘flu’-like illness to a serious and sometimes fatal disease. Icterus (jaundice) is a relatively common symptom in leptospirosis but is also found in many other diseases involving the liver such as the various forms of hepatitis (WHO, 2020a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/58bebf68-6f13-45e4-bc46-b76e4bac32d6","prefLabel":{"en":"Life cycle assessment (LCA)"},"definition":{"en":"Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product or service throughout its life cycle. This definition builds from ISO (2018)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/512f94d5-c5f3-4845-8d04-820813c4d3ec","prefLabel":{"en":"Lifetime"},"definition":{"en":"Lifetime is a general term used for various time scales characterizing the rate of processes affecting the concentration of trace gases. The following lifetimes may be distinguished:"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c3df27b5-4ebd-4c60-8b02-fb5709feb6b6","prefLabel":{"en":"Turnover time (T)"},"definition":{"en":"(also called global atmospheric lifetime) is the ratio of the mass M of a reservoir (e.g., a gaseous compound in the atmosphere) and the total rate of removal S from the reservoir: T = M/S. For each removal process, separate turnover times can be defined. In soil carbon biology, this is referred to as mean residence time."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b11602f8-dfbd-4441-b209-8b09b731e905","prefLabel":{"en":"Lithosphere"},"definition":{"en":"The upper layer of the solid Earth, both continental and oceanic, which comprises all crustal rocks and the cold, mainly elastic part of the uppermost mantle. Volcanic activity, although part of the lithosphere, is not considered as part of the climate system, but acts as an external forcing factor."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f5ee7823-0c23-4aad-8dcf-189f396a5960","prefLabel":{"en":"Lived experience"},"altLabel":{"en":["Lived experiences"]},"definition":{"en":"Personal knowledge about the world gained through direct, first-hand involvement in everyday events rather than through representations constructed by other people (Chandler and Munday, 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e36fb84a-734f-40b4-aca0-07139beec5fe","prefLabel":{"en":"Long-lived climate forcers (LLCFs)"},"definition":{"en":"[TERM NOT USED - Term name change to ''Long-lived greenhouse gases (LLGHGs) in WGI report]A set of well-mixed greenhouse gases with long atmospheric lifetimes. This set of compounds includes carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O), together with some fluorinated gases. They have a warming effect on climate. These compounds accumulate in the atmosphere at decadal to centennial timescales, and their effect on climate hence persists for decades to centuries after their emission. On timescales of decades to a century already emitted emissions of long-lived climate forcers can only be abated by greenhouse gas removal (GGR)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/71c39fd8-00e1-4175-952b-7a386da63ee6","prefLabel":{"en":"Long-lived greenhouse gases (LLGHGs)"},"definition":{"en":"A set of well-mixed greenhouse gases with long atmospheric lifetimes. This set of compounds includes carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O), together with some halogenated compounds. They have a warming effect on climate. These compounds accumulate in the atmosphere at decadal to centennial time scales, and their effect on climate hence persists for decades to centuries after their emission. On time scales of decades to a century, already emitted emissions of long-lived climate forcers can only be abated by greenhouse gas removal."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0ea92d8a-e528-4fd1-a13a-7ac646db44c8","prefLabel":{"en":"Low Elevation Coastal Zones (LECZ)"},"definition":{"en":"Coastal areas below 10 m of elevation above sea level that are hydrologically connected to the sea."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/53957ce2-a1c2-45e7-b61f-922024fb61fb","prefLabel":{"en":"Malaria (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. It is preventable and curable. In 2018, there were an estimated 228 million cases of malaria worldwide and the estimated number of malaria deaths stood at 405,000 (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Malaria. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 4 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites. The parasites are spread to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, called ‘malaria vectors’. There are five parasite species that cause malaria in humans, with two – P. falciparum and P. vivax – posing the greatest threat (WHO, 2020). In 2018, nearly half of the world’s population was at risk of malaria. Most malaria cases and deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2018, P. falciparum accounted for 99.7% of estimated malaria cases in the World Health Organization (WHO) African Region, 50% of cases in the WHO South-East Asia Region, 71% of cases in the Eastern Mediterranean and 65% in the Western Pacific. P. vivax is the predominant parasite in the WHO Region of the Americas, representing 75% of malaria cases (WHO, 2020). Malaria is an acute febrile illness. In a non-immune individual, symptoms usually appear 10 to 15 days after the infective mosquito bite. The first symptoms – fever, headache, and chills – may be mild and difficult to recognise as malaria. If not treated within 24 hours, P. falciparum malaria can progress to severe illness, often leading to death. Children with severe malaria frequently develop one or more of the following symptoms: severe anaemia, respiratory distress in relation to metabolic acidosis, or cerebral malaria. In adults, multi-organ failure is also frequent. In malaria endemic areas, people may develop partial immunity, allowing asymptomatic infections to occur (WHO, 2020). Some population groups are at considerably higher risk of contracting malaria, and developing severe disease, than others. These include infants, children under 5 years of age, pregnant women and patients with HIV/AIDS, as well as non-immune migrants, mobile populations and travellers. National malaria control programmes need to take special measures to protect these population groups from malaria infection, taking into consideration their specific circumstances (WHO, 2020). The WHO recommends malaria diagnosis be made using parasite-based diagnostic testing, either by microscopy (allowing visualisation of the parasite) or by malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDT) that are genus- or species-specific. RDT has been restricted to remote areas with limited access to good quality microscopy services. Diagnosis of all suspected cases should be confirmed by either of these two methods before treatment, as a measure to avoid antimalarial drug resistance (WHO, 2019). The World Malaria Report 2019 provides a comprehensive update on global and regional malaria data and trends. The report tracks investments in malaria programmes and research as well as progress across all intervention areas: prevention, diagnosis, treatment, elimination and surveillance. It also includes dedicated chapters on the consequences of malaria on maternal, infant and child health, the ‘High burden to high impact’ approach as well as biological threats to the fight against malaria. The report is based on information received from more than 80 countries and areas with ongoing malaria transmission. This is supplemented by data from national household surveys and databases held by other organizations (WHO, 2019). The WHO has published guidance on case definitions and classifications, as well as surveillance including vector control monitoring and evaluation (WHO, 2018a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1906d59f-f5a0-42bc-8ceb-a1c92ab7f1aa","prefLabel":{"en":"Managed forest"},"definition":{"en":"Forests subject to human interventions (notably silvicultural management such as planting, pruning, thinning), timber and fuelwood harvest, protection (fire suppression, insect suppression) and management for amenity values or conservation, with defined geographical boundaries (Ogle et al., 2018). [Note: For a discussion of the term ‘forest’ in the context of National GHG inventories, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories (IPCC 2006).]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2aef8146-c72e-41ae-86ae-73d08febc008","prefLabel":{"en":"Managed grassland"},"definition":{"en":"Grasslands on which human interventions are carried out, such as grazing domestic livestock or hay removal."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b7e24af2-ddc2-4c40-a6c6-9a61918eed57","prefLabel":{"en":"Managed land"},"definition":{"en":"In the context of national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories (IPCC, 2006) defines managed land ‘where human interventions and practices have been applied to perform production, ecological or social functions’. IPCC (2006) defines anthropogenic GHG emissions and removals in the LULUCF sector as all those occurring on ‘managed land’. The key rationale for this approach is that the preponderance of anthropogenic effects occurs on managed lands. [Note: More details can be found in IPCC 2006 Guidelines for National GHG Inventories, Volume 4, Chapter 1.]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17f29604-f0bd-499f-a8e8-0519926dc95c","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine ice cliff instability (MICI)"},"definition":{"en":"A hypothetical mechanism of an ice cliff failure. In case a marine-terminated ice sheet loses its buttressing ice shelf, an ice cliff can be exposed. If the exposed ice cliff is tall enough (about 800 m of the total height, or about 100 m of the above-water part), the stresses at the cliff face exceed the strength of the ice, and the cliff fails structurally in repeated calving events."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6dc6a5ac-0d49-460e-9236-7bc0765680e4","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine ice sheet instability (MISI)"},"definition":{"en":"A mechanism of irreversible (on the decadal to centennial time scale) retreat of a grounding line for the marine-terminating glaciers, in case the glacier bed slopes towards the ice sheet interior."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/38724378-9967-40d2-a34f-e19dcc2443d0","prefLabel":{"en":"Material substitution"},"definition":{"en":"Replacement of one material (including an energy carrier used as a feedstock) by another, due to scarcity, price, technological change, or because of lower environmental impacts or greenhouse gas emissions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/01a5fe22-65a0-4ac6-95fb-a79fa59746bd","prefLabel":{"en":"Mean sea level"},"definition":{"en":"The surface level of the ocean at a particular point averaged over an extended period of time such as a month or year. Mean sea level is often used as a national datum to which heights on land are referred."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/19a4c617-b262-47f5-b560-a8819282b679","prefLabel":{"en":"Meltwater Pulse 1A (MWP-1A)"},"definition":{"en":"A particular interval of rapid global sea level rise between about 14,700 and 14,300 years ago, associated with the end of the last ice age and attributed to freshwater flux to the ocean from accelerated melting of ice sheets and glaciers. First defined based on oxygen isotope data (Duplessy et al., 1981), and later shown to be reflected by high rates of sea level rise (Fairbanks, 1989)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4ef6a799-31eb-4e0c-b6e7-22527944df63","prefLabel":{"en":"Meningococcal Meningitis (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Meningococcal meningitis is a bacterial form of meningitis, a serious infection of the thin lining that surrounds the brain and spinal cord, that is caused by the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis. Meningococcal meningitis has the potential to cause large-scale epidemics and is observed worldwide (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Meningococcal meningitis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 3 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Meningococcal meningitis is a bacterial form of meningitis. Of the twelve types of Neisseria meningitidis, called serogroups, six (A, B, C, W, X, Y) can cause epidemics. The bacteria can be carried in the nasopharyngeal tract without causing symptoms and are transmitted through droplets of respiratory or throat secretions upon close and prolonged contact. It is believed that 1% to 10% of the population are asymptomatic carriers (WHO, 2018a). The average incubation period is four days but can range from two to ten days. The most common symptoms are a stiff neck, high fever, sensitivity to light, confusion, headaches and vomiting. Some cases may develop haemorrhagic rash. Meningococcal meningitis can kill in hours and if untreated, is fatal in 50% of cases. It may result in brain damage, hearing loss or disability in 10% to 20% of survivors (WHO, 2018a). Diagnosis of meningococcal meningitis relies on lumbar puncture showing a purulent spinal fluid. The bacteria can sometimes be seen in microscopic examinations of the spinal fluid. Diagnosis is confirmed by growing the bacteria from specimens of spinal fluid or blood or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Identification of the serogroups and susceptibility testing to antibiotics are important to define control measures (WHO, 2018a). Meningococcal meningitis is observed in a range of situations, from sporadic cases, to small clusters, to huge epidemics throughout the world, with seasonal variations (WHO, 2018a). International outbreaks have been associated with various mass gatherings. Meningococcal meningitis is observed worldwide but the highest burden of the disease is in the so-called ‘meningitis belt’ of sub-Saharan Africa, stretching from Senegal in the west to Ethiopia in the east. The geographical distribution and epidemic potential differ according to the serogroup. Estimates of global meningococcal disease burden vary widely from 116,000 to 429,000 cases worldwide (2015). This range reflects uncertainty due to inadequate surveillance in several parts of the world (WHO, 2018a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/45b39115-2dc7-4f38-aced-ce67d5d5abdc","prefLabel":{"en":"Methods and tools"},"altLabel":{"en":["Methods and tools"]},"definition":{"en":"A method can be defined as a systematic procedure or process for achieving specific objectives (Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eb2c131d-e0a8-48a1-9bea-bd765615ae4d","prefLabel":{"en":"(climate change) Impact assessment"},"definition":{"en":"The practice of identifying and evaluating, in monetary and/or non-monetary terms, the effects of climate change on natural and human systems (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b79cdf73-3a86-40f1-91a7-b36328b5af1b","prefLabel":{"en":"Bayesian method/approach"},"altLabel":{"en":["bayesian inference","bayesian methods","bayesian models"]},"definition":{"en":"A Bayesian method is a method by which a statistical analysis of an unknown or uncertain quantity(ies) is carried out in two steps. First, a prior probability distribution for the uncertain quantity(ies) is formulated on the basis of existing knowledge (either by eliciting expert opinion or by using existing data and studies). At this first stage, an element of subjectivity may influence the choice, but in many cases, the prior probability distribution can be chosen as neutrally as possible, in order not to influence the final outcome of the analysis. In the second step, newly acquired data are used to update the prior distribution into a posterior distribution. The update is carried out either through an analytic computation or though numeric approximation, using a theorem formulated by and named after the British mathematician Thomas Bayes (1702-1761) (IPCC, AR5, 2013)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bd046f17-9ac4-4def-af1f-3802b401b09a","prefLabel":{"en":"Bayesian network"},"altLabel":{"en":["bayesian belief networks"]},"definition":{"en":"Graphical models that communicate causal information and provide a framework for describing and evaluating probabilities when we have a network of interrelated variables. A key feature of Bayesian Belief Networks (or simply Bayesian Networks) is that they discover and describe causality rather than merely identifying associations (McClean, 2003 in Gill et al., 2022)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bd046f17-9ac4-4def-af1f-3802b401b09a","prefLabel":{"en":"Bayesian network"},"altLabel":{"en":["bayesian belief networks"]},"definition":{"en":"Graphical models that communicate causal information and provide a framework for describing and evaluating probabilities when we have a network of interrelated variables. A key feature of Bayesian Belief Networks (or simply Bayesian Networks) is that they discover and describe causality rather than merely identifying associations (McClean, 2003 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0fdbbf6-605e-40ac-9994-eff1e7c56292","prefLabel":{"en":"Content analysis"},"altLabel":{"en":["media content analysis"]},"definition":{"en":"Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text). Using content analysis, researchers can quantify and analyze the presence, meanings, and relationships of such certain words, themes, or concepts (Colombia University, n.d). \n\nIt requires the development of a coding system that identifies which aspects should be counted and how. It may be inductive (identifies themes and patterns) or deductive (quantifies frequencies of data). The results are descriptive, but will also indicate trends or issues of interest. While it is often associated with media analysis, it is in fact useful for any subject with a documentary base (UNICEF, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/da2f27df-51e3-4bbd-bfe4-42fea655eea6","prefLabel":{"en":"Conversation analysis"},"definition":{"en":"Conversation analysis involves examining conversations and analysing what was said, why it was said and how it was said. Conversation analysis aims to explain the many intricacies and tacit knowledge (meaning everyone understands what occurs during conversation, but couldn’t implicitly state why) of social interaction (University of Sheffield, n.d)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/07eb975e-4837-4cb0-80cb-4688d5fbb544","prefLabel":{"en":"Detection"},"definition":{"en":"Detection of change is defined as the process of demonstrating that climate or a system affected by climate has changed in some defined statistical sense, without providing a reason for that change. An identified change is detected in observations if its likelihood of occurrence by chance due to internal variability alone is determined to be small, for example, <10%."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3b88d8a0-3cd1-4c50-b896-080c02b00ee8","prefLabel":{"en":"Detection and attribution"},"definition":{"en":"See Attribution and Detection"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/75548632-6268-4225-97c7-eb7b8bdef052","prefLabel":{"en":"Ensemble"},"definition":{"en":"A collection of comparable datasets that reflect variations within the bounds of one or more sources of uncertainty, and that when averaged can provide a more robust estimate of underlying behaviour. Ensemble techniques are used by the observational, reanalysis and modelling communities."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5071ca69-bc7b-4dad-aa08-ef26fca2e1df","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate simulation ensemble"},"definition":{"en":"A group of parallel model simulations characterising historical climate conditions, climate predictions, or climate projections. Variation of the results across the ensemble members may give an estimate of modelling-based uncertainty. Ensembles made with the same model but different initial conditions characterise the uncertainty associated with internal climate variability, whereas multi-model ensembles including simulations by several models also include the effect of model differences. Perturbed parameter ensembles, in which model parameters are varied in a systematic manner, aim to assess the uncertainty resulting from internal model specifications within a single model. Remaining sources of uncertainty unaddressed with model ensembles are related to systematic model errors or biases, which may be assessed from systematic comparisons of model simulations with observations wherever available."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b10b31a7-80b3-4a28-9019-7af17f6c49eb","prefLabel":{"en":"Grounded theory"},"definition":{"en":"An approach to the analysis of qualitative data that aims to generate theory out of research data by achieving a close fit between the two. The ‘substantive’ grounded theory is applicable to the setting studied, whereas the ‘formal’ grounded theory typology is applicable to a range of similar settings (UNICEF, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9e686b77-b67c-4ef5-a0b0-586551d7be4d","prefLabel":{"en":"Integrated assessment"},"definition":{"en":"A method of analysis that combines results and models from the physical, biological, economic and social sciences and the interactions among these components in a consistent framework to evaluate the status and consequences of environmental change and the policy responses to it."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c447ef3e-e968-4eb1-a04f-3501d85e4503","prefLabel":{"en":"Kriging"},"definition":{"en":"Kriging is a method of interpolation (normally spatial interpolation when used with atmospheric or oceanographic data) in which the interpolated values are estimated using a Gaussian process governed by prior covariances."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/41b79825-cce5-4302-b1f6-3189d291ad92","prefLabel":{"en":"Mixed-method approach"},"altLabel":{"en":["mixed method","mixed methods","mixed methods approach","mixed-method","mixed-methods approach"]},"definition":{"en":"A research strategy that combines qualitative and quantitative data collection and/or analysis (UNICEF, 2014)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb002cb8-5850-481b-b3e2-421ce6bb0eeb","prefLabel":{"en":"Backcasting"},"definition":{"en":"Backcasting first looks ahead to define a desirable future end-state or vision, and then works backwards to identify the steps and solutions necessary to get there (European Commission, 2023).\n\nEuropean Commission. (2023). How to get started with the backcasting approach: Mutual Learning Exercise on Citizen Science Initiatives – Policy and Practice (1st ed.). Publications Office of the European Union. https://projects.research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/rio/report/HOW%20TO_%20Get%20Started%20with%20Backcasting%20Formatted%20v4.pdf\n\nIrwin, T. (2018). The emerging transition design approach. Design Research Society 2018 Conference Proceedings, 73. https://doi.org/10.21606/drs.2018.210\n\nRobinson, J. (1982). Energy Backcasting: A Proposed Method of Policy Analysis. In Energy Policy, 10, 337-344."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Backcasting is often used as an approach to address long-term, complex societal issues that involve multiple stakeholder groups (Irwin, 2018).\n\nBackcasting differs from forecasting in approach. Forecasting extrapolates current trends (based in dominant paradigms out of which the problem arose) into the future, whereas backcasting attempts to define interesting futures, analyze their consequences, and determine the conditions necessary for these futures to materialize (Irwin, 2018).\n\nRobinson (1982) notes: \"The major distinguishing characteristic of backcasting analysis is a concern, not with what futures are likely to happen, but with how desirable futures can be attained. It is thus normative, involving working backwards from a particular desirable future end-point to the present, in order to determine the physical feasibility of that future and what policy measures would be required to reach that point\" (p. 337).\n\nTransition Design proposes backcasting as a collaborative activity in which stakeholder groups can leverage their visions of desirable futures to inform tangible, consensus-based action in the present (Irwin, 2018).","Backcasting is often used as an approach to address long-term, complex societal issues that involve multiple stakeholder groups (Irwin, 2018).\n\nBackcasting differs from forecasting in approach. Forecasting extrapolates current trends (based in dominant paradigms out of which the problem arose) into the future, whereas backcasting attempts to define interesting futures, analyze their consequences, and determine the conditions necessary for these futures to materialize (Irwin, 2018).\n\nRobinson (1982) notes: \"The major distinguishing characteristic of backcasting analysis is a concern, not with what futures are likely to happen, but with how desirable futures can be attained. It is thus normative, involving working backwards from a particular desirable future end-point to the present, in order to determine the physical feasibility of that future and what policy measures would be required to reach that point\" (p. 337).\n\nTransition Design proposes backcasting as a collaborative activity in which stakeholder groups can leverage their visions of desirable futures to inform tangible, consensus-based action in the present (Irwin, 2018).\n\nIrwin, T. (2018). The emerging transition design approach. Design Research Society 2018 Conference Proceedings, 73. https://doi.org/10.21606/drs.2018.210\n\nRobinson, J. (1982). Energy Backcasting: A Proposed Method of Policy Analysis. In Energy Policy, 10, 337-344."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5b298da2-959d-4f79-b5eb-0e4c194f7df5","prefLabel":{"en":"Transition design"},"definition":{"en":"A transdisciplinary approach aimed at addressing the many ‘wicked’ problems confronting 21st century societies. Transition Design brings together two global memes. First, the idea that entire societies must transition toward more sustainable, equitable and desirable long-term futures and second, that these transitions will require intentional, systems-level change (Irwin and Kossoff, n.d)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/059f5b65-b89e-4e42-a21a-9e1c3fbb339f","prefLabel":{"en":"Probability density function (PDF)"},"definition":{"en":"A probability density function is a function that indicates the relative chances of occurrence of different outcomes of a variable. The function integrates to unity over the domain for which it is defined and has the property that the integral over a sub-domain equals the probability that the outcome of the variable lies within that sub-domain. For example, the probability that a temperature anomaly defined in a particular way is greater than zero is obtained from its PDF by integrating the PDF over all possible temperature anomalies greater than zero. Probability density functions that describe two or more variables simultaneously are similarly defined (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/79db6a27-c7fb-45a7-a8f1-ec8746ced8cf","prefLabel":{"en":"Reconstruction (of climate variable)"},"definition":{"en":"Approach to reconstructing the past temporal and spatial characteristics of a climate variable from predictors. The predictors can be instrumental data if the reconstruction is used to infill missing data or proxy data if it is used to develop paleoclimate reconstructions. Various techniques have been developed for this purpose: linear multivariate regression-based methods and non-linear Bayesian and analogue methods."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b7013d02-8ce2-4416-a887-87583d8e0f6f","prefLabel":{"en":"Return period"},"definition":{"en":"An estimate of the average time interval between occurrences of an event (e.g., flood or extreme rainfall) of (or below/above) a defined size or intensity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc387fcd-d403-41da-823b-169437ea4a5e","prefLabel":{"en":"Sensitivity analysis"},"altLabel":{"en":["sensitivity analysis"]},"definition":{"en":"Sensitivity analysis with respect to quantitative analysis assesses how changing assumptions alters the outcomes. For example, one chooses different values for specific parameters and reruns a given model to assess the impact of these changes on model output (IPCC AR5, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d0984be9-c8ba-44ac-a05b-049a917b75b2","prefLabel":{"en":"Storyline"},"definition":{"en":"A way of making sense of a situation or a series of events through the construction of a set of explanatory elements. Usually, it is built on logical or causal reasoning. In climate research, the term storyline is used both in connection to scenarios as related to a future trajectory of the climate and human systems and to a weather or climate event. In this context, storylines can be used to describe plural, conditional possible futures or explanations of a current situation, in contrast to single, definitive futures or explanations (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d4c586fa-5bc2-4897-8853-177af81bfc62","prefLabel":{"en":"Physical climate storyline"},"definition":{"en":"A self-consistent and plausible unfolding of a physical trajectory of the climate system, or a weather or climate event, on time scales from hours to multiple decades (Shepherd et al., 2018). Through this, storylines explore, illustrate and communicate uncertainties in the climate system response to forcing and in internal variability."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d3532665-5dc2-4412-aa52-1d3f8e79bfec","prefLabel":{"en":"Scenario storyline"},"definition":{"en":"A narrative description of a scenario (or family of scenarios), highlighting the main scenario characteristics, relationships between key driving forces and the dynamics of their evolution."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8facf466-5268-48d2-a84c-5e6b66142406","prefLabel":{"en":"Thematic analysis"},"definition":{"en":"The analysis of qualitative data for the extraction of key themes in one’s data, based on agreed principles for defining core themes in data (UNICEF, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17612e72-bbbf-40c8-80b2-a224afaced6f","prefLabel":{"en":"Tier"},"definition":{"en":"In the context of the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, a tier represents a level of methodological complexity. Usually three tiers are provided. Tier 1 is the basic method, Tier 2 intermediate and Tier 3 most demanding in terms of complexity and data requirements. Tiers 2 and 3 are sometimes referred to as higher-tier methods and are generally considered to be more accurate (IPCC, 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6a557642-39ff-4e53-8ffb-7c12e0b5410a","prefLabel":{"en":"Validation"},"altLabel":{"en":["validate"]},"definition":{"en":"Confirmation, through the provision of objective evidence, that the requirements for a specific intended use or application have been fulfilled. The objective evidence needed for a validation is the result of a test or other form of determination such as performing alternative calculations or reviewing documents. The use conditions for validation can be real or simulated (Climateurope2, ISO 9000)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/39117a74-740f-4860-9c58-b1b3e85a00dc","prefLabel":{"en":"Microalgae"},"altLabel":{"en":["macroalgae","microalga","microalgae biomass","microalgae cultivation","microalgae-based products"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/81b921f1-0c8e-4084-bf39-157d88fc803a","prefLabel":{"en":"Microclimate"},"definition":{"en":"Local climate at or near the Earth’s surface."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/85b80444-a7c1-4287-a0f1-73187bad4949","prefLabel":{"en":"Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)"},"altLabel":{"en":["MERS-CoV disease"]},"definition":{"en":"Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory disease caused by MERS-Corona Virus (MERS-CoV) (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Middle East respiratory syndrome corona (MERS-CoV). World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 13 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted between animals and people mostly in countries in the Middle East (WHO, 2019), however, an importation of MERS-CoV into the Republic of Korea in 2015 led to the largest MERS outbreak outside of the Middle East. Since 2012, 27 countries have reported cases of MERS globally and 12 of them are located in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Approximately 80% of human cases have been reported by Saudi Arabia (WHO, 2019). A typical presentation of MERS-CoV disease is fever, cough and shortness of breath. Pneumonia is a common finding. Gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhoea, have also been reported. Severe illness can cause respiratory failure. The case fatality rate of MERS is been estimated around 35% (WHO, 2019). Diagnosis is made with clinical, radiological, or histopathological evidence of pulmonary disease and also related to other confirmed cases and any history of residence or travel in countries where MERS-CoV is known to be circulating (WHO, 2019). No vaccine or specific treatment is currently available, however several MERS-CoV specific vaccines and treatments are in development. Treatment is supportive and based on the patient’s clinical condition. The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9ce5b4bf-98ee-45ed-b002-aae017047cce","prefLabel":{"en":"Mitigation"},"definition":{"en":"Technological change and changes in activities that reduce resource inputs and emissions per unit of output. Although several social, economic and technological policies would produce an emission reduction, with respect to climate change, mitigation means implementing policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance sinks. Renewable energy deployment is a mitigation option when avoided greenhouse gas emissions exceed the sum of direct and indirect emissions (see emissions) (IPCC SRREN, 2011)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/76ae1fb7-3969-4ab9-b097-ba87285ff132","prefLabel":{"en":"Anthropogenic removals"},"definition":{"en":"The withdrawal of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the atmosphere as a result of deliberate human activities. These include enhancing biological sinks of CO2 and using chemical engineering to achieve long term removal and storage. Carbon capture and storage (CCS), which alone does not remove CO2 from the atmosphere, can help reduce atmospheric CO2 from industrial and energy-related sources if it is combined with bioenergy production (BECCS), or if CO2 is captured from the air directly and stored (DACCS). [Note: In the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories (IPCC, 2006), which are used in reporting of emissions to the UNFCCC, ‘anthropogenic’ land-related GHG fluxes are defined as all those occurring on ‘managed land’, i.e. ‘where human interventions and practices have been applied to perform production, ecological or social functions’. However, some removals (e.g. removals associated with CO2 fertilisation and N deposition) are not considered as ‘anthropogenic’, or are referred to as ‘indirect’ anthropogenic effects, in some of the scientific literature assessed in this report. As a consequence, the land-related net GHG emission estimates from global models included in this report are not necessarily directly comparable with Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) estimates in national GHG Inventories.]"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bc929a4c-eba7-4e98-b76f-350fb146a03d","prefLabel":{"en":"Mitigation (of climate change)"},"definition":{"en":"A human intervention to reduce emissions or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/17b655bf-7ce3-4d74-9eb8-4df6b7c0fe27","prefLabel":{"en":"Mitigation option"},"definition":{"en":"A technology or practice that reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or enhances sinks."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/71c58494-73c7-4bb8-9845-5375ae1edaab","prefLabel":{"en":"Mitigation scenario"},"definition":{"en":"A plausible description of the future that describes how the (studied) system responds to the implementation of mitigation policies and measures."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3d1dc1c3-ab9a-41ef-86e8-00f8fbeddb40","prefLabel":{"en":"Mitigation (of disaster risk and hazard impacts)"},"definition":{"en":"The lessening of the potential adverse impacts of physical hazards (including those that are human-induced) through actions that reduce hazard, exposure, and vulnerability (Gill et al., 2022).\n\nSource: Gill et al., 2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/face0c9e-9034-4082-82d8-8c935a4f2ea8","prefLabel":{"en":"Mitigation potential"},"definition":{"en":"The quantity of net greenhouse gas emission reductions that can be achieved by a given mitigation option relative to specified emission baselines.\n[Note: Net greenhouse gas emission reduction is the sum of reduced emissions and/or enhanced sinks.]"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/27ec6883-3cb9-4a12-82d1-1c1171782f12","prefLabel":{"en":"Biogeophysical potential"},"definition":{"en":"The mitigation potential constrained by biological, geophysical and geochemical limits and thermodynamics, without taking into account technical, social, economic and/or environmental considerations."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4480a1a2-cd1a-445c-9194-f80126cd307b","prefLabel":{"en":"Models"},"definition":{"en":"Structured imitations of a system’s attributes and mechanisms to mimic the appearance or functioning of systems, for example, the climate, the economy of a country, or a crop. Mathematical models assemble (many) variables and relations (often in a computer code) to simulate system functioning and performance for variations in parameters and inputs (IPCC, AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Graphical models are models representing the probabilistic relationships among a set of variables. Nodes in the graph correspond to variables, and the absence of edges corresponds to conditional independence (Heckerman, 2001 in Gill et al., 2022).\n\nMacroeconomic models are analytical tools designed to replicate the operation of the global or individual country's economy. They examine the dynamics of important economic indicators like output, inflation, and unemployment (adapted from Saltenyte, 2019 in Gill et al., 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/55dbf4aa-eba5-4bd9-a898-584218ab8ba9","prefLabel":{"en":"Additionality"},"definition":{"en":"The property of being additional. Mitigation is additional if the greenhouse gas emission reductions or removals would not have occurred in the absence of the associated policy intervention or activity (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Additionality is one of several key criteria used to ensure the environmental integrity of Offsets (in climate change mitigation) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7d1693a6-abd8-4b40-b730-98be9e9a7178","prefLabel":{"en":"Adjustment time or response time (Ta)"},"definition":{"en":"Adjustment time or response time (Ta) is the time scale characterizing the decay of an instantaneous pulse input into the reservoir. The term adjustment time is also used to characterize the adjustment of the mass of a reservoir following a step change in the source strength. Half-life or decay constant is used to quantify a first-order exponential decay process. See Response time for a different definition pertinent to climate variations. \n\nThe term lifetime is sometimes used, for simplicity, as a surrogate for adjustment time. \n\nIn simple cases, where the global removal of the compound is directly proportional to the total mass of the reservoir, the adjustment time equals the turnover time: T = Ta. An example is CFC-11, which is removed from the atmosphere only by photochemical processes in the stratosphere. In more complicated cases, where several reservoirs are involved or where the removal is not proportional to the total mass, the equality T = Ta no longer holds. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an extreme example. Its turnover time is only about 4 years because of the rapid exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean and terrestrial biota. However, a large part of that CO2 is returned to the atmosphere within a few years. Thus, the adjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphere is actually determined by the rate of removal of carbon from the surface layer of the oceans into its deeper layers. Although an approximate value of 100 years may be given for the adjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphere, the actual adjustment is faster initially and slower later on. In the case of methane (CH4), the adjustment time is different from the turnover time because the removal is mainly through a chemical reaction with the hydroxyl radical (OH), the concentration of which itself depends on the CH4 concentration. Therefore, the CH4 removal rate S is not proportional to its total mass M (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bfa52aac-f2bb-4861-b4e2-58d6e6d9eea9","prefLabel":{"en":"Apparent hydrological sensitivity (ηa)"},"definition":{"en":"The change in global mean precipitation per degree Celsius of global mean surface air temperature (GSAT) change with units of % per °C, although it can also be calculated as Wm-2 per °C."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a5a41e55-610c-4312-b9ef-6921393b4eb1","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate model"},"altLabel":{"en":["Climate modelling"]},"definition":{"en":"A qualitative or quantitative representation of the climate system based on the physical, chemical and biological properties of its components, their interactions and feedback processes and accounting for some of its known properties. The climate system can be represented by models of varying complexity; that is, for any one component or combination of components a spectrum or hierarchy of models can be identified, differing in such aspects as the number of spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical, chemical or biological processes are explicitly represented, or the level at which empirical parametrisations are involved. There is an evolution towards more complex models with interactive chemistry and biology. Climate models are applied as a research tool to study and simulate the climate and for operational purposes, including monthly, seasonal and interannual climate predictions."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f7fd6c01-0c42-4b9e-b46c-098fb8341528","prefLabel":{"en":"1.5°C warmer worlds"},"definition":{"en":"Projected worlds in which global warming has reached and, unless otherwise indicated, been limited to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. There is no single 1.5°C warmer world, and projections of 1.5°C warmer worlds look different depending on whether it is considered on a near-term transient trajectory or at climate equilibrium after several millennia, and, in both cases, if it occurs with or without overshoot. Within the 21st century, several aspects play a role for the assessment of risk and potential impacts in 1.5°C warmer worlds: the possible occurrence, magnitude and duration of an overshoot; the way in which emissions reductions are achieved; the ways in which policies might be able to influence the resilience of human and natural systems; and the nature of the regional and sub-regional risks. Beyond the 21st century, several elements of the climate system would continue to change even if the global mean temperatures remain stable, including further increases of sea level (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f5f7057e-1e7e-4e6d-b0ef-3e2f94950941","prefLabel":{"en":"Added value"},"definition":{"en":"Improvement of the representation of some climatic aspects by one methodology compared to another methodology. For instance, downscaling a coarse resolution global climate model may improve the representation of regional climate in complex terrain (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/88da33d8-1177-4d22-b538-7d6fe7730beb","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate forecast"},"altLabel":{"en":["Climate prediction","forecasting"]},"definition":{"en":"A climate prediction or climate forecast is the result of an attempt to produce (starting from a particular state of the climate system) an estimate of the actual evolution of the climate in the future, for example, at seasonal, interannual or decadal time scales. Because the future evolution of the climate system may be highly sensitive to initial conditions, has chaotic elements and is subject to natural variability, such predictions are usually probabilistic in nature (IPCC AR6)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5071ca69-bc7b-4dad-aa08-ef26fca2e1df","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate simulation ensemble"},"definition":{"en":"A group of parallel model simulations characterising historical climate conditions, climate predictions, or climate projections. Variation of the results across the ensemble members may give an estimate of modelling-based uncertainty. Ensembles made with the same model but different initial conditions characterise the uncertainty associated with internal climate variability, whereas multi-model ensembles including simulations by several models also include the effect of model differences. Perturbed parameter ensembles, in which model parameters are varied in a systematic manner, aim to assess the uncertainty resulting from internal model specifications within a single model. Remaining sources of uncertainty unaddressed with model ensembles are related to systematic model errors or biases, which may be assessed from systematic comparisons of model simulations with observations wherever available."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4cc13c2f-3514-4a62-990a-fdb8faf22c11","prefLabel":{"en":"Cloud-resolving models (CRMs)"},"definition":{"en":"Numerical models that are that are of high enough resolution and have the necessary physics to represent the dynamical and physical processes of cloud formation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fd99feea-700e-44e2-b26a-7189e7fb7671","prefLabel":{"en":"CMIP3 and CMIP5"},"definition":{"en":"Phases three and five of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3 and CMIP5), coordinating and archiving climate model simulations based on shared model inputs by modeling groups from around the world. The CMIP3 multi-model data set includes projections using SRES scenarios. The CMIP5 data set includes projections using the Representative Concentration Pathways."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ff613300-2f1f-4444-8ff2-06f1131316fb","prefLabel":{"en":"Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP)"},"definition":{"en":"A climate modelling activity from the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) which coordinates and archives climate model simulations based on shared model inputs by modelling groups from around the world. The (CMIP3) multi-model data set includes projections using Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) scenarios. The (CMIP5) data set includes projections using the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP). The CMIP6 phase involves a suite of common model experiments as well as an ensemble of CMIP-endorsed Model Intercomparison Projects (MIPs)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2e1e8b4e-7335-45d8-acff-de11b44bd41b","prefLabel":{"en":"Decadal predictability"},"definition":{"en":"Refers to the notion of predictability of the climate system on a decadal time scale."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/55f9cf7e-b747-4016-b5e6-cef732cb8d73","prefLabel":{"en":"Decadal prediction"},"definition":{"en":"A climate prediction on decadal time scales."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/31e6a73c-adc3-4063-a9a4-18cb7e158738","prefLabel":{"en":"Downscaling"},"definition":{"en":"A method that derives local- to regional-scale information from larger-scale models or data analyses. Two main methods exist: dynamical downscaling and empirical/statistical downscaling. The dynamical method uses the output of regional climate models, global models with variable spatial resolution, or high-resolution global models. The empirical/statistical methods are based on observations and develop statistical relationships that link the large-scale atmospheric variables with local/regional climate variables. In all cases, the quality of the driving model remains an important limitation on the quality of the downscaled information. The two methods can be combined, for example, applying empirical/statistical downscaling to the output of a regional climate model, consisting of a dynamical downscaling of a global climate model."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5490723c-d8f5-4d10-9b99-6571804fc710","prefLabel":{"en":"Dynamic global vegetation model (DGVM)"},"definition":{"en":"A model that simulates vegetation development and dynamics through space and time, as driven by climate and other environmental changes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/39e00930-7243-4707-8809-039ba5da8367","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth system model (ESM)"},"definition":{"en":"A coupled atmosphere–ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) in which a representation of the carbon cycle is included, allowing for interactive calculation of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) or compatible emissions. Additional components (e.g., atmospheric chemistry, ice sheets, dynamic vegetation, nitrogen cycle, but also urban or crop models) may be included."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c9568aae-54a1-4077-ac8c-30cab001eb34","prefLabel":{"en":"Earth system model of intermediate complexity (EMIC)"},"definition":{"en":"EMICs represent climate processes at a lower resolution or in a simpler, more idealized fashion than an Earth system model (ESM)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b307e7c5-054f-42e3-8697-8ea7d786a49a","prefLabel":{"en":"Emergent constraint"},"definition":{"en":"An attempt to reduce the uncertainty in climate projections, using an ensemble of Earth system models (ESMs) to relate a specific feedback or future change to an observation of the past or current climate (typically some trend, variability or change in variability)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/23af5583-78d4-4f74-bee3-dbdb003faf0e","prefLabel":{"en":"Emulation"},"definition":{"en":"Reproducing the behaviour of complex, process-based models (namely, Earth system models, ESMs) via simpler approaches, using either emulators or simple climate models (SCMs). The computational efficiency of emulating approaches opens new analytical possibilities given that ESMs take a lot of computational resources for each simulation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c92a0834-f39a-429f-a8b6-b489900aee05","prefLabel":{"en":"Emulators"},"definition":{"en":"A broad class of heavily parametrized models (’simple climate models’), statistical methods like neural networks, genetic algorithms or other artificial intelligence approaches, designed to reproduce the responses of more complex, process-based Earth system models (ESMs). The main application of emulators is to extrapolate insights from ESMs and observational constraints to a larger set of emission scenarios."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1cf04762-8039-43a9-8035-75eae52e5f26","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy balance model (EBM)"},"definition":{"en":"An energy balance model is a simplified climate model that is typically used as an emulator of climate to analyse the energy budget of the Earth to compute changes in the climate. In its simplest form, there is no explicit spatial dimension, and the model then provides an estimate of the changes in globally averaged temperature computed from the changes in radiation. This zero-dimensional energy balance model can be extended to a one-dimensional or two-dimensional model if changes to the energy budget with respect to latitude, or both latitude and longitude, are explicitly considered."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/044fece3-8f17-4a8e-aa99-720cdf1aeac4","prefLabel":{"en":"Equilibrium and transient climate experiment"},"definition":{"en":"An equilibrium climate experiment is a climate model experiment in which the model is allowed to fully adjust to a change in radiative forcing. Such experiments provide information on the difference between the initial and final states of the model, but not on the time-dependent response. If the forcing is allowed to evolve gradually according to a prescribed emissions scenario, the time-dependent response of a climate model may be analysed. Such an experiment is called a transient climate experiment."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c8cfef5b-f8a9-4add-b547-4af61bc749f2","prefLabel":{"en":"General circulation model (GCM)"},"definition":{"en":"A numerical representation of the atmosphere–ocean–sea ice system based on the physical, chemical and biological properties of its components, their interactions and feedback processes. General circulation models are used for weather forecasts, seasonal to decadal prediction, and climate projections. They are the basis of the more complex Earth system models (ESMs)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/41db08c9-fb69-4ee7-83ab-c9b930c6dc7c","prefLabel":{"en":"Hindcast or retrospective forecast"},"definition":{"en":"A forecast made for a period in the past using only information available before the beginning of the forecast. A sequence of hindcasts can be used to calibrate the forecast system and/or provide a measure of the average skill that the forecast system has exhibited in the past as a guide to the skill that might be expected in the future."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6e83bf78-df81-4cbb-8a81-1a4e1ba32692","prefLabel":{"en":"Integrated assessment model (IAM)"},"definition":{"en":"Models that integrate knowledge from two or more domains into a single framework. They are one of the main tools for undertaking integrated assessments. One class of IAM used with respect to climate change mitigation may include representations of: multiple sectors of the economy, such as energy, land use and land-use change; interactions between sectors; the economy as a whole; associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and sinks; and reduced representations of the climate system. This class of model is used to assess linkages between economic, social and technological development and the evolution of the climate system. Another class of IAM additionally includes representations of the costs associated with climate change impacts, but includes less detailed representations of economic systems. These can be used to assess impacts and mitigation in a cost–benefit framework and have been used to estimate the social cost of carbon."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/00181c1f-f62c-440b-b70e-76baac365531","prefLabel":{"en":"Model initialization"},"definition":{"en":"A climate prediction typically proceeds by integrating a climate model forward in time from an initial state that is intended to reflect the actual state of the climate system. Available observations of the climate system are assimilated into the model. Initialization is a complex process that is limited by available observations, observational errors and, depending on the procedure used, may be affected by uncertainty in the history of climate forcing. The initial conditions will contain errors that grow as the forecast progresses, thereby limiting the time period over which the forecast will be useful."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cf011c44-30c8-4cf9-ad70-6f4fe0732d65","prefLabel":{"en":"Model spread"},"definition":{"en":"The range or spread in results from climate models, such as those assembled for Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6). Does not necessarily provide an exhaustive and formal estimate of the uncertainty in feedbacks, forcing or projections even when expressed numerically, for example, by computing a standard deviation of the models’ responses. In order to quantify uncertainty, information from observations, physical constraints and expert judgement must be combined, using a statistical framework."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e7654a8e-a749-42af-8b79-eb125de32e2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Nowcasting"},"definition":{"en":"Meterological forecasting with local detail, by any method, over a period from the present to six hours ahead, including a detailed description of the present weather (WMO, 2017)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In economics, nowcasting is used to describe the real-time estimation of current economic conditions, such as GDP or inflation, using a variety of high-frequency data sources. It helps policymakers and analysts make timely decisions before official statistics are released. Examples are found in pandemic economic modelling and public health in disease spread; as well as in social science for population trends, migration flows, or unemployment rates (Bańbura et al., 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5534709f-fef5-48b4-9f83-f789e6feb893","prefLabel":{"en":"Perturbed parameter ensemble"},"definition":{"en":"Parameter ensembles in which model parameters are varied in a systematic manner, aim to assess the uncertainty resulting from internal model specifications within a single model."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/86121493-7824-45b1-84e5-b08e7317ba00","prefLabel":{"en":"Prediction quality/skill"},"definition":{"en":"Measures of the success of a prediction against observationally based information. No single measure can summarize all aspects of forecast quality, and a suite of metrics is considered. Metrics will differ for forecasts given in deterministic and probabilistic form."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/16ce33ec-4acc-4104-b567-9570de96c3b0","prefLabel":{"en":"Process-based model"},"definition":{"en":"Theoretical concepts and computational methods that represent and simulate the behaviour of real-world systems derived from a set of functional components and their interactions with each other and the system environment, through physical and mechanistic processes occurring over time."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e2274d76-4587-4887-92ea-05334fe72f36","prefLabel":{"en":"Regional climate model (RCM)"},"definition":{"en":"A climate model at higher resolution over a limited area. Such models are used in downscaling global climate results over specific regional domains."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/26e5ea01-6866-4d72-b398-3ea54e2740cb","prefLabel":{"en":"Resolution"},"definition":{"en":"In climate models, this term refers to the physical distance (metres or degrees) between each point on the grid used to compute the equations. Temporal resolution refers to the time step or time elapsed between each model computation of the equations."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c16f6d62-c1c2-4a74-a1dd-290aa6b135ab","prefLabel":{"en":"Semi-empirical model"},"definition":{"en":"Model in which calculations are based on a combination of observed associations between variables and theoretical considerations relating variables through fundamental principles (e.g., conservation of energy). For example, in sea level studies, semi-empirical models refer specifically to transfer functions formulated to project future global mean sea level (GMSL) change, or contributions to it, from future global surface temperature change or radiative forcing (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0bc3b3c3-fb00-4d2c-b2ec-8bb0d2117f7c","prefLabel":{"en":"Simple climate model (SCM)"},"definition":{"en":"A broad class of lower-dimensional models of the energy balance, radiative transfer, carbon cycle, or a combination of such physical components. SCMs are also suitable for performing emulations of climate-mean variables of Earth system models (ESMs), given that their structural flexibility can capture both the parametric and structural uncertainties across process-oriented ESM responses. They can also be used to test consistency across multiple lines of evidence with regard to climate sensitivity ranges, transient climate responses (TCRs), transient climate response to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCREs) and carbon cycle feedbacks."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ad09041e-fcbe-48ca-aafe-f9fc68130f21","prefLabel":{"en":"Hydraulic model"},"definition":{"en":"A hydraulic model is defined as a representation—either physical or mathematical—used to simulate the behaviour of water flow in natural or engineered systems. These models are essential tools in civil and environmental engineering for analysing and designing systems such as rivers, stormwater networks, and hydraulic structures (Ettema et al., 2000)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5b60aac0-428a-4f02-8aee-d171efb7f9bb","prefLabel":{"en":"Stochastic model"},"altLabel":{"en":["non-stochastic","stochastic","stochastic behaviour","stochastic method","stochastic modelling","stochastic models","stochastic process","stochastic processes","stochastic simulation","stochastic systems"]},"definition":{"en":"A model using statistical concepts, such as probability distribution and randomness. Stochastic models are based on a set of random variables, where the projections and calculations are repeated to achieve a probability distribution. The models can be repeated thousands of times, with a new set of random variables each time (WMO, 1992)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["For example, Stochastic flood modelling is the process of generating thousands of plausible flood events and estimating their return periods, flood extents and water depths at different locations (OASIS LMF, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/24a07f25-ee92-4864-94dc-58ec9c6233ba","prefLabel":{"en":"Uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"A state of incomplete knowledge that can result from a lack of information or from disagreement about what is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources, from imprecision in the data to ambiguously defined concepts or terminology, incomplete understanding of critical processes or uncertain projections of human behaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative measures (e.g., a probability density function) or by qualitative statements (e.g., reflecting the judgement of a team of experts) (Moss and Schneider, 2000; IPCC, 2004; Mastrandrea et al., 2010) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fe93c919-7765-4c03-b9af-10856e6d452f","prefLabel":{"en":"Deep uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"A situation of deep uncertainty exists when experts or stakeholders do not know or cannot agree on: (1) appropriate conceptual models that describe relationships among key driving forces in a system, (2) the probability distributions used to represent uncertainty about key variables and parameters and/or (3) how to weigh and value desirable alternative outcomes (Lempert et al., 2003) (IPCC AR6, 2023). Deep uncertainty also arises from actions taken over time in response to unpredictable evolving situations (Marchau et al. 2019 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/184b242c-189b-4e96-9da3-c2c47a001456","prefLabel":{"en":"Interpolation uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"Uncertainty arising from a statistical or physical model-based interpolation of a field between available estimates to create a more spatio-temporally complete estimate."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/995efb27-fccf-44c6-a7a5-57f201b6bbee","prefLabel":{"en":"Sampling uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"Uncertainty arising from incomplete or uneven availability of measurements in either space or time or both."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/80a0914b-bcb2-4846-90b8-888bd413bfbb","prefLabel":{"en":"Monkeypox (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Monkeypox is a viral zoonotic disease that has symptoms similar to those of smallpox (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Monkeypox. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 13 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Monkeypox is a viral zoonosis (a virus transmitted to humans from animals) with symptoms similar to those seen in the past in smallpox patients, although it is clinically less severe. It is caused by an orthopoxvirus, from the family of viruses which also caused human smallpox (WHO, 2018). With the eradication of smallpox in 1980 and subsequent cessation of smallpox vaccination, monkeypox has emerged as the most important orthopoxvirus. Monkeypox occurs in Central and West Africa, often in proximity to tropical rainforests (WHO, 2019a). Monkeypox is mostly transmitted to people from various wild animals such as rodents and primates, with limited secondary spread through human-to-human transmission. Monkeypox is less contagious than smallpox but can be fatal in 1% to 10% of cases (WHO, 2018). Common symptoms include fever, intense headache, lymphadenopathy, back pain, myalgia and weakness. Like in smallpox, rashes appear beginning on the face and spreading on the body, including to the palms of the hands and soles of the feet (WHO, 2018). Human monkeypox was first identified in humans in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then known as Zaire) in a 9-year-old boy in a region where smallpox had been eliminated in 1968. Since then, most cases have been reported from rural, rainforest regions of the Congo Basin, particularly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it is considered to be endemic (WHO, 2019a). Since 1970, human cases of monkeypox have been reported from 11 African countries – Benin, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, and South Sudan. In 2017, Nigeria experienced the largest documented outbreak, 40 years after the last confirmed case. The true burden of monkeypox is not known. For example, in 1996–1997, a major monkeypox outbreak was suspected in the Democratic Republic of Congo but with a lower case fatality and a higher attack rate than usual. Some patient samples tested positive for varicella virus and some contained both varicella and monkeypox viruses. Concurrent outbreaks of chickenpox and monkeypox could explain a change in transmission dynamics in this case (WHO, 2019a). The virus has been exported from Africa a few times. In spring 2003, monkeypox cases were confirmed in the USA. Most patients were reported to have had close contact with pet prairie dogs that were infected by African rodents that had been imported into the country from Ghana. Recently, monkeypox was carried to Israel in September 2018, to the UK in September 2018 and December 2019, and to Singapore in May 2019 by travellers from Nigeria who fell ill with monkeypox after arrival (WHO, 2019a). Two distinct genetic clades of the virus have been identified – the Congo Basin and the West African clades – with the former found to be more virulent and transmissible. The geographic division between the two clades is thought to be in Cameroon as this is the only country where both monkeypox virus clades have been detected (WHO, 2019a). Monkeypox can only be diagnosed definitively in the laboratory by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on skin lesion specimens, genetic sequencing or by viral isolation (WHO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/585b4761-eead-4952-801a-72d68dbd6794","prefLabel":{"en":"Mountains"},"definition":{"en":"A mountain is a landform formed through plate tectonics that rises above its surrounding area, characterised by verticality and ruggedness such as gentle or steep sloping sides, sharp or rounded ridges and a high point called a peak or a summit. Mountain regions consist of mountains and mountain ranges as defined by ruggedness, intermontane valleys, plateaus and tablelands, and hills and hilly forelands, together forming a complex terrain.\nTo delineate mountain regions, a combination of terrain characteristics is used, such as elevation above sea level, steepness of slope and relative relief or local elevational range.\nThree mountain characterisations using different combinations of the above criteria applied to digital elevation models have been developed to arrive at mountain area statistics, described and analysed in detail by Sayre et al. (2018), namely K1 (Kapos et al., 2000), K2 (Körner et al., 2011) and K3 (Karagulle et al., 2017)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3710567c-b7de-4e87-95bb-2d2b53b8d69c","prefLabel":{"en":"Narrative"},"definition":{"en":"Qualitative descriptions of plausible future world evolutions, describing the characteristics, general logic and developments underlying a particular quantitative set of scenarios. Narratives are also referred to in the literature as “storylines” (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["As stated in the IPCC's definition, the term 'narrative' is often used interchangeably with the term 'storyline'. For example, Gill et al. (2022) define 'narrative' as that often used by social scientists to characterise peoples’ views, understandings or perspectives - aligning with the IPCC's definition of 'storyline'.","As stated in the IPCC's definition, the term 'narrative' is often used interchangeably with the term 'storyline'. For example, Gill et al. (2022) define 'narrative' as that often used by social scientists to characterise peoples’ views, understandings or perspectives - aligning with the IPCC's definition of 'storyline'.\n\nAn impact narrative tells the story of your work by explaining the context, the challenge being addressed, the actions taken, and the impact achieved. It brings together quantitative evidence (such as statistics and performance metrics) and qualitative evidence (such as testimonials, case studies, and participant experiences) to demonstrate what changed as a result of your work (DIRECTED, 2026)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0a645d23-8c18-47d3-857e-de91b7f2cb91","prefLabel":{"en":"Narrative analysis"},"definition":{"en":"The collection and interpretation of life accounts in interview and other forms with reference to story-construction with particular attention to the use of explanatory forms such as metaphors and experiences as well as being sensitive to the temporal sequence of such experiences (UNICEF, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/57a15477-cc20-49df-9402-934b9189c521","prefLabel":{"en":"Natural resources"},"altLabel":{"en":["natural resource","natural resources","natural resources and the environment"]},"definition":{"en":"Actual or potential sources of wealth that occur in a natural state, such as timber, water, fertile land, wildlife and minerals (PEDRR, 2010 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/009f186f-c207-43f8-8f5f-c11b22aecee9","prefLabel":{"en":"Nature's contributions to people (NCP)"},"definition":{"en":"All the contributions, both positive and negative, of living nature (i.e., diversity of organisms, ecosystems, and their associated ecological and evolutionary processes) to the quality of life for people. Beneficial contributions from nature include such things as food provision, water purification, flood control, and artistic inspiration, whereas detrimental contributions include disease transmission and predation that damages people or their assets. Many NCP may be perceived as benefits or detriments depending on the cultural, temporal or spatial context (Díaz et al, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba56d82e-933e-4f85-9d79-084b26db022e","prefLabel":{"en":"Neglected Tropical Diseases (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of communicable diseases caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites that prevail in tropical and subtropical conditions (WHO, no date). Twenty diseases and disease groups are addressed in the global roadmap for NTDs 2021–2030 (WHO, 2020).WHO, no date. Neglected Tropical Diseases. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 14 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) affect more than one billion people and cost developing economies billions of dollars every year. They are often termed ‘neglected’ as the people who are most affected are the poorest populations living in rural areas, urban slums and conflict zones (WHO, no date). More than 200,000 people die each year from snakebite envenoming, rabies and dengue alone, and lack of timely access to affordable treatment leaves hundreds of millions severely disabled, disfigured or debilitated (WHO, 2015). Populations living in poverty, without adequate sanitation and in close contact with infectious vectors and domestic animals and livestock are those worst affected. Affecting the world’s poorest people, neglected tropical diseases impair physical and cognitive development, contribute to mother and child illness and death, make it difficult to farm or earn a living, and limit productivity in the workplace. As a result, neglected tropical diseases trap the poor in a cycle of poverty and disease (WHO, no date). At present, the World Health Organization (WHO) categorises the following communicable diseases as NTDs: Buruli Ulcer, Chagas Disease, Chromoblastomycosis, Cysticercosis, Dengue Fever, Dracunculiasis (Guinea Worm Disease), Echinococcosis, Fascioliasis, Human African Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness), Leishmaniasis, Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease), Lymphatic Filariasis, Mycetoma, Onchocerciasis, Rabies, Schistosomiasis, Soil-transmitted Helminths (Ascaris, Hookworm, and Whipworm), Trachoma, Yaws (WHO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b64c5eb5-7473-4211-a42f-c76b537afa41","prefLabel":{"en":"Net negative greenhouse gas emissions"},"definition":{"en":"A situation of net negative greenhouse gas emissions is achieved when metric-weighted anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) removals exceed metric-weighted anthropogenic GHG emissions. Where multiple GHG are involved, the quantification of net emissions depends on the metric chosen to compare emissions of different gases (such as global warming potential, global temperature change potential, and others, as well as the chosen time horizon)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/49411da5-34be-4fc1-82a9-9fff65416219","prefLabel":{"en":"Net zero CO2 emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Condition in which anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are balanced by anthropogenic CO2 removals over a specified period.Note: Carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are overlapping concepts. The concepts can be applied at global or sub-global scales (e.g., regional, national and sub-national). At a global scale, the terms carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are equivalent. At sub-global scales, net zero CO2 emissions is generally applied to emissions and removals under direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity, while carbon neutrality generally includes emissions and removals within and beyond the direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity. Accounting rules specified by GHG programmes or schemes can have a significant influence on the quantification of relevant CO2 emissions and removals."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2b7b1a6d-55d2-492c-a144-6702331d6824","prefLabel":{"en":"Net zero emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Net zero emissions are achieved when anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere are balanced by anthropogenic removals over a specified period. Where multiple greenhouse gases are involved, the quantification of net zero emissions depends on the climate metric chosen to compare emissions of different gases (such as global warming potential, global temperature change potential, and others, as well as the chosen time horizon)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9991b91d-5ac7-4527-9ade-66f0382dddd7","prefLabel":{"en":"New Urban Agenda"},"definition":{"en":"The New Urban Agenda was adopted at the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) in Quito, Ecuador, on 20 October 2016. It was endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly at its 68th plenary meeting of the 71st session on 23 December 2016."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4bc70a18-c925-49e6-9fc7-c076e28e2a37","prefLabel":{"en":"New World Screwworm (NWS) (Animal)"},"definition":{"en":"New World screwworms are a type of blow fly larvae (maggots) that can infest livestock and other warm blooded animals, including people. They most often enter an animal through an open wound and feed on the animal’s living flesh. If not treated, infestations can be fatal (OIE, 2020).OIE, 2020. Terrestrial Animal Health Code: New world screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax). Chapter 8.12. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The New World screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax, is a blow fly that is an obligate parasite of warm-blooded animals in tropical and subtropical regions of South America and the Caribbean. Females seek animals and lay their eggs on the skin, often near open wounds. Larvae feed on the animal’s tissues, enlarging the wound, which can cause death if not treated. The period between oviposition at a wound site and the expression of disease due to burrowing larvae can be as short as one to two days. After cessation of feeding, larvae leave the animal and pupate in the soil. The life cycle takes approximately three weeks. Infestation of tissue by fly larvae is known as ‘myiasis’ (OIE, 2013). Economic losses due to screwworm infestation of livestock are significant. In 2005, it was estimated that in South America alone annual losses were approximately USD 3.6 billion (Scott et al., 2020). New World screwworm eradication programmes have eliminated this myiasis from Curacao, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, the USA, Mexico and in Central America, from Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. New World screwworm is presently found in the northern countries of South America southwards to Uruguay, northern Chile and northern Argentina. The parasite spread from the Americas to Libya when it was identified in 1988 by Libyan veterinarians in the northwest part of the country. The mode of introduction and the country from which the pest came remain unknown. Positive taxonomic identification of the pest was made by British scientists, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) confirmed the presence of the screwworm myiasis disease in Libya in March 1989 (Lindquist and Abusowa, 1991). Many cases of screwworm myiasis have been documented in humans. The disease can quickly become debilitating if it affects the eyes, mouth, nasal or frontal sinuses, or the ears (CFSPH, 2016). Clinical presentation of screwworm is always associated with a variety of pre-established wounds and should be considered in the event of any myiasis. Wounds may manifest draining, suppuration and/or enlargement; signs of infestation with serosanguineous discharge often accompanied by distinctive odour. Animals with screwworm myiasis often display discomfort and appear unthrifty and depressed; separate from group and may also manifest anorexia and reduced milk production. Morbidity, although variable, in areas with high screwworm populations may reach up to 100% in naval wounds of newborns. If untreated, animals may die within one to two weeks due to toxicity and/or secondary bacterial infection (OIE, 2013). Laboratory diagnosis is by identification of the parasites under the microscope. Field diagnosis of screwworm larvae, even with a microscope or magnifying glass, is difficult. Adult screwworms are rarely seen. They are also difficult to distinguish from other flies. Other techniques used mainly in research laboratories include cuticular hydrocarbon analysis, analysis of mitochondrial DNA, and random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) assays. Serology is not used (CFSPH, 2016). Screwworm infestations can be treated in both endemic and non-endemic regions; euthanasia of the animal is not usually required. Although some wounds may be surgically excised, most are treated with a suitable larvicide and allowed to heal without closure. Treatment is usually repeated at intervals until the wound has healed. Removal of necrotic tissue may be necessary, and antibiotics may be given when secondary bacterial contamination is present. In non-endemic regions, the animal is quarantined until treatment is complete and the wound has healed. Treatment of the environment may also be necessary. Larvae that are removed from the wound must be placed in alcohol preservative or destroyed. If any larvae leave an infested wound and mature into adults, screwworms can become established in an area (CFSPH, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6c57b8a1-62a0-4d2e-8745-5201d5c25cc0","prefLabel":{"en":"Newcastle Disease Virus (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Acute viral disease of birds","Avian paramyxovirus-1 infection","Contagious viral bird disease","Fowl pest","Fowl plague","Goose paramyxovirus infection","Philippine fowl disease","Ranikhet disease","Virulent Newcastle disease"]},"definition":{"en":"Newcastle disease is an infectious disease of birds caused by Newcastle disease virus, of the Paramyxovirdae family. The disease is seen mainly in chickens, but many bird species and even reptiles and mammals are susceptible to infection (OIE, 2018).OIE, 2018. Terrestrial Animal Health Code: Newcastle Disease (Infection with Newcstle Virus). Chapter 3.3.14. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 4 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Newcastle disease is a viral disease of birds caused by avian paramyxovirus 1 (APMV-1). For official control purposes, this disease is currently defined as the most severe form of the illness, which is caused only by certain viral strains. Many less virulent strains of APMV-1 also circulate among domesticated and wild birds. These viruses usually cause much milder clinical signs or infect birds asymptomatically. However, they can sometimes evolve to become the highly virulent strains that cause Newcastle disease (Spickler, 2016). Newcastle disease in birds can vary from no signs of illness to sudden death. Affected birds may have coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, depression, and diarrhoea. Chicken flocks may have a sudden decrease in egg production or produce thin shelled eggs. Signs of severe illness include swelling of the tissues of the head, muscle tremors, drooping wings, twisted head, circling, paralysis or sudden death (CFSPH, 2008). Newcastle disease is considered to be one of the most important poultry diseases in the world. Chickens are particularly susceptible and may experience morbidity and mortality rates of up to 100% (Spickler, 2016). Since its recognition in 1926, Newcastle disease is regarded as being endemic in many countries. Outbreaks can have a tremendous impact on village chickens in developing countries, where these birds are a significant source of protein and this disease is endemic (FAO, 2004). In developed countries, where highly virulent APMV-1 strains have usually been eradicated from poultry, trade embargoes and restrictions cause significant economic losses during outbreaks (Spickler, 2016). Newcastle disease can also affect other commercial poultry, game birds, ratites, and various pet, hobby and zoo birds. Some of these birds become ill, while others carry and shed virulent viruses asymptomatically. Subclinically infected birds, particularly illegally imported psittacines, can introduce Newcastle disease into countries where it does not usually exist (Spickler, 2016). Newcastle disease is transmitted by direct contact with diseased or carrier birds. Biosecurity measures on farms and in live poultry markets are important to prevent disease spread (FAO, 2015; OIE, 2020). Prophylactic vaccination is practised in all but a few of the countries that produce poultry on a commercial scale (OIE, 2018). Newcastle disease virus is a human pathogen and the most common sign of infection in humans is conjunctivitis that develops within 24 hours of exposure to the eye. Although the effect on the eye may be severe, infections are usually transient, and the cornea is not affected. There is no evidence of human-to-human spread (OIE, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/15776bf2-326b-4c13-9c25-2666b5781dc5","prefLabel":{"en":"Non-CO2 emissions and radiative forcing"},"definition":{"en":"Non-CO2 emissions included in this report are all anthropogenic emissions other than carbon dioxide (CO2) that result in radiative forcing. These include short-lived climate forcers, such as methane (CH4), some fluorinated gases, ozone (O3) precursors, aerosols or aerosol precursors, such as black carbon and sulphur dioxide, respectively, as well as long-lived greenhouse gases, such as nitrous oxide (N2O) or other fluorinated gases. The radiative forcing associated with non-CO2 emissions and changes in surface albedo (e.g., resulting from land-use change) is referred to as non-CO2 radiative forcing."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/094703f6-8453-47bc-b7c1-590e80bd0ba3","prefLabel":{"en":"Non-communicable diseases"},"definition":{"en":"Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, tend to be of long duration and are the result of a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental and behavioural factors. The main types of NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (such as heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma) and diabetes (WHO)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0aba33b5-577e-48bc-ba86-4fdc4b90124d","prefLabel":{"en":"Offset (in climate policy)"},"definition":{"en":"The reduction, avoidance or removal of a unit of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by one entity, purchased by another entity to counterbalance a unit of GHG emissions by that other entity. Offsets are commonly subject to rules and environmental integrity criteria intended to ensure that offsets achieve their stated mitigation outcome. Relevant criteria include, but are not limited to, the avoidance of double counting and leakage, use of appropriate baselines, additionality, and permanence or measures to address impermanence."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/01905dee-9e5c-4012-80a1-7de9bbbe07aa","prefLabel":{"en":"online platform"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c41e54f9-4360-4b5b-aca2-9259cee8b7cf","prefLabel":{"en":"Orbital forcing"},"definition":{"en":"Orbital forcing is the influence of slow, systematic and predictable changes in orbital parameters (eccentricity, obliquity and precession of the equinox) on incoming solar radiation (insolation), especially its latitudinal and seasonal distribution. It is an external forcing and a key driver of glacial–interglacial cycles."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/412cca6a-3aca-4185-93d0-e3d63cfcb38a","prefLabel":{"en":"Organic farming"},"definition":{"en":"An agricultural production system that aims to utilise natural processes and cycles to limit off-farm and notably synthetic inputs, while also aiming to enhance agroecosystems and society. Organic farming is often legally defined and governed by standards, typically guided by principles outlined by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM – Organics International) (IFOAM – Organics International, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/59735a55-8ce1-46e1-abc9-0d7f7eac691e","prefLabel":{"en":"Organizational learning"},"altLabel":{"en":["Organisational learning"]},"definition":{"en":"Organizational learning means the process of systematically improving actions through better collective knowledge and understanding (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the context of disaster resilient infrastructure, the term “organizational learning” can be applied very broadly to any organised entity (even a community), that has established learning processes, such as observation, analysis, knowledge sharing, reflection, sensemaking, experimentation, and change design. Through these processes, the entity seeks to learn from experience, especially from the experience of adverse events, to change the way it works, and to improve the outcomes from its actions and decisions. See also \"\"Systemic change\"\".\n \nIn the context of disaster resilient infrastructure, “better knowledge and understanding” often refers to improved understanding of the causal relations and feedback loops within infrastructure systems, and especially the behaviours of complex systems. See also \"Disaster resilience\", \"Feedback loops\", \"System of systems\", \"Systemic change\", \"Systemic risk\" and \"Cascading hazards\".\n \nOrganizational learning offers a particular approach to single, double- and triple-loop learning. See also \"Feedback loops\".\n \nMonitoring and evaluation processes should provide an important input to organizational learning, but this connection is not always made."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/14e52603-1094-452c-8885-9e3e69eae81b","prefLabel":{"en":"Other Geohazard"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ca0b1039-e2e1-49c7-98b6-0203b44a7016","prefLabel":{"en":"Aquifer Recharge (Systems Failure/Outages)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Groundwater recharge"]},"definition":{"en":"An aquifer is a water-bearing rock that readily transmits water to wells and springs. It can be recharged either naturally (precipitation including rainfall or snow) or artificially (e.g., pumped river recharge via wells). Failure or outage can be due to derogation, well failure or contamination (USGS, no date).USGS, no date. Aquifers and Groundwater. United States Geological Survey (USGS). Accessed 20 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Groundwater is a finite but renewable resource. The amount of available groundwater is limited by the porosity and permeability of the aquifer, but it can be renewed by meteoric water or artificial recharge. Aquifers may be unconfined or confined. While the water table in an unconfined aquifer will be in hydraulic continuity with adjacent water courses, a confined aquifer may be isolated from adjacent watercourses by a capping of lower permeability strata. Consequently, meteoric recharge to unconfined aquifers is more direct and generally, depending on the thickness of the unsaturated zone, more rapid than to confined aquifers. Groundwater abstraction via water wells causes a reduction in the water table that is referred to as a cone of depression. Cones of depression are rarely truly cone shaped; the shape being influenced by aquifer permeability, which is rarely isotropic. If groundwater abstraction exceeds recharge, over-abstraction will result in aquifer depletion and potentially outages of supply. Outages can also result from damage to the abstraction well. This could be due to physical damage, for example, pipe fracture or physical blocking by a trapped object, such as a jammed pump. Alternatively, it might occur because of clogging of the permeable part of the well, most likely due to a form of geochemical precipitation. Derogation of supply can also be caused by abstraction from neighbouring parts of an aquifer, either for potable supply or dewatering for mineral extraction or construction. Physical changes to an aquifer and its permeability can be brought about by earthquake activity. More commonly, groundwater infrastructure may be prone to rupture or damage by ground shaking induced by earthquake or volcanic activity (US EPA, 2020). Groundwater contamination can result from surface or sub-surface contaminants resulting from poor waste management, industry, mining and agriculture. Aquifer vulnerability to contamination reflects the extent of lower permeability materials that cover/ protect the aquifer. Potential contaminants include a very wide range of natural (volcanic) or anthropogenic chemical contaminants, as well as biological contaminants, such as Cryptosporidium (a microscopic parasite; Morris and Foster, 2000) and saline intrusion (USGS, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ce06c6a2-ee9e-470c-b511-374767933417","prefLabel":{"en":"Ground Fissuring"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ground deformation,","Subsidence,","Surface faulting"]},"definition":{"en":"Ground fissures form in response to tensional stresses, most commonly in unconsolidated sediment, but also in rock (Arizona Geological Survey, 2020).Arizona Geological Survey, 2020. Earth Fissures and Ground Subsidence. Accessed 20 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Natural or anthropogenic ground desiccation associated with subsidence can lead to ground fissuring. Ground fissures may also form as incipient indicators of coastal land sliding, ground spreading or cambering, for example, induced by mining or karst subsidence. Ayalew et al. (2004) suggested that ground fissures in the Ethiopian rift valley may be related to aseismic tectonic strain, piping and hydraulic compaction. Surface fissures are also associated with earthquakes. The size and spatial extent of surface rupture, fissures and uplift/subsidence depends on the type and context. In Arizona, fissures range from discontinuous hairline fractures to open ground cracks that exceed 3 km in length, are up to 7 m wide, and tens of metres deep. In this context, fissure depth is likely to reflect the depth to the groundwater (Arizona Geological Survey, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/28de6f1a-bb14-43aa-b776-8aba5715630d","prefLabel":{"en":"Ground Gases (CH4, Rn, etc.)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Gas-contaminated land","Landfill gas,","Magmatic gases,","Volcanic gases,"]},"definition":{"en":"Ground gases that result from material decay (natural or anthropogenic) typically include radon, methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, but may also include the break down products of other compounds, such as nitrogen, alcohols, alkanes, cycloalkanes and alkenes, aromatic hydrocarbons (monocyclic or polycyclic); esters and ethers, as well as halogenated compounds and organosulphur. Ground gases derived from magma (molten or semi-molten natural material derived from the melting of land or oceanic crust) include carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen halides. Ground gases are gases released in combination with water vapour and particulate matter during volcanogenic events, or via fumaroles, and hydrothermal systems (adapted from NHBC (UK), 2007; IVHHN, 2020; US EPA, no date; and USGS, no date).IVHHN, 2020. Health impacts of volcanic gases. International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN). Accessed 15 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Volcanogenic gases escape from magma as a consequence of the pressure relief that occurs as the magma rises to the surface. These gases are also released via geothermal systems. Chemical or biological processes generate ground gases, for example, the breakdown of uranium-bearing minerals releasing radon from granite or by oxidation and or biogenic reduction (releasing hydrogen sulphide). In addition, naturally occurring ground gases are generated by the biogenic decay of organic matter, for example methane, carbon dioxide and phosphine gas. Landfill gas is a product of the largely biogenic decomposition of anthropogenic waste. Its composition reflects that of the waste, but is dominated by methane and carbon dioxide, becoming more carbon dioxide rich as the waste ages, and with a small amount of non-methane organic compounds. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas (US EPA, no date). Ground gases comprise a hazard because of the risk to human health and or their flammability. As an example, the UK limits for the following gases are summarised below from sources other than earthquake triggered gases: Another source of ground gas associated with continental margins is methane hydrates (Geology.com, 2005-2020). Similarly, ground gases and vapours are emitted from volcanogenic sources."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/72471c4e-bfcd-4209-9f76-afb919d76990","prefLabel":{"en":"Ground Shaking (induced earthquake, reservoir fill, dams, cavity collapse, underground explosion, impact, hydrocarbon fields, shale exploration, etc.)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ground motion,","Ground vibration,","Local ground response,","Seismicity,","Shaking intensity,","Vibration","Earth tremor,","Peak ground acceleration (PGA),"]},"definition":{"en":"Induced seismic ground shaking comprises non-tectonic (i.e., nonnatural) earthquakes which result from human activities that alter the stresses and strains on the Earth’s crust. Most induced seismicity is of a low magnitude and higher frequency than larger magnitude events with longer wavelengths and lower frequencies (USGS, 2016).USGS, 2016. EarthWord – Induced Seismicity. United States Geological Survey (USGS). Accessed 21 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["An earthquake is the sudden release of energy and ground shaking resulting from rocks breaking and moving along a fault line. Earthquake ground shaking is produced by seismic waves that travel through the Earth and along its surface. All earthquakes, both natural and man-made, generate seismic waves. Seismic waves radiate outward from the earthquake origin, forming a circular wave front that causes shaking over an extended region (Stein and Wysession, 2003). Ground shaking is a predominant seismic hazard, causing more than 90% of earthquake-related damage and loss (National Institute of Building Sciences Building Seismic Safety Council, 2010). The strength and duration of the ground shaking at any location depends on many factors, predominantly the magnitude of the earthquake, the earthquake mechanism (i.e., the fault orientation and direction of slip), the distance to the earthquake origin, and local soil conditions (Kramer, 1996; USGS, no date a). Thus, ground shaking at each site from an earthquake is unique and can vary significantly from location to location. There are many human activities that can cause induced earthquakes including: wastewater disposal, mining, development of artificial lakes, extraction of fossil fuels, extraction of groundwater, development of geothermal energy, hydraulic fracturing, and subsurface storage of carbon dioxide. Earthquake magnitudes are given using one of several broadly equivalent scales, with the ‘moment magnitude’ scaling being the preferred measure of an earthquake’s size, as it quantifies the energy released by the earthquake (USGS, no date b). The magnitude scale is logarithmic; each increase of 1 magnitude unit (i.e., 4.3 to 5.3) represents an order of magnitude (factor of 10) increase in the amplitude of seismic measurements, and a factor of 32 increase in the energy release of an earthquake (USGS, no date b). Earthquakes of Magnitude 7.0 and above can be expected to cause widespread, intense ground shaking; earthquakes of Magnitudes 6.0 to 6.9 may cause local damage. Note that damage may be more severe and widespread for an earthquake of a given magnitude and other characteristics in regions of fragile buildings and high-density population (USGS, no date b)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/28c0356a-fe37-4fef-997d-5d3f2fd8ded6","prefLabel":{"en":"Landscape Creep"},"altLabel":{"en":["Soil creep,","Solifluction"]},"definition":{"en":"Landscape creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming soil or rock. Movement is caused by shear stress, sufficient to produce permanent deformation, but too small to produce shear failure (adapted from Hutchinson, 1968; and Varnes, 1978).Hutchinson, J.N., 1968. Mass movement. In: Fairbridge, R.W. (ed), Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Reinhold Publishers, pp. 688-695.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Extremely slow movement of surficial soil layers on a slope (typically less than 1 m deep), commonly as a result of climatedriven cyclical volume changes (wetting and drying, frost heave). There are generally three types of creep: seasonal creep, where movement is within the depth of soil affected by seasonal changes in soil moisture and soil temperature; continuous creep, where shear stress continuously exceeds the strength of the material; and progressive creep, associated with slopes that are reaching the point of failure due to other types of mass movement. Creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences, and small soil ripples or ridges (HIghland and Bobrowsky, 2008)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a2e0f457-dd50-4d18-85f0-04ca8dd2502b","prefLabel":{"en":"Liquefaction (Groundwater Trigger)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Boiling sand","Quick sand,","Running sand,"]},"definition":{"en":"Liquefaction is the term applied to the loss of strength experienced in loosely packed, saturated or close to saturated sediments at or near the ground surface in response to strong ground shaking, such as earthquakes, cyclic loading, and vibration from machinery, or due to the development of excess pore pressure resulting from a change in head or confining pressures. The loss of strength causes the soil to behave like a viscous fluid, sometimes referred to as ‘running sand’, until the excess pore pressure returns to hydrostatic (USGS, no date).USGS, no date. Science Explorer: Liquefaction. United States Geological Survey (USGS). Accessed 12 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Soil propensity to liquefaction has been related to grading, uniformity of grain size and relative density or voids ratio. A uniformly graded soil is more susceptible to soil liquefaction than a well-graded soil because the resistance to volumetric strain of a well-graded soil decreases the amount of excess pore pressure that can develop under undrained conditions. Historically, sands were considered to be the only type of soil susceptible to liquefaction. Yet, liquefaction also occurs in gravel and silt (Seed et al., 2003). ‘Running sand’ or ‘boiling sand’ is a product of the liquefaction process that can also occur in peat. Liquefaction susceptibility is also influenced by particle shape; soil deposits with rounded particles being more susceptible to liquefaction than soils with angular particles. Structureless anthropogenic soils, such as those placed during land reclamation are susceptible to liquefaction. During construction, liquefaction occurs when the groundwater conditions reduce the effective stress of the soil to zero. At this point, the seepage pressure can disturb the soil structure and mobilise the sediment as quick, running or boiling sand (BRANZ Seismic Resilience, no date). Liquefaction, as a secondary hazard associated with earthquakes, can also manifest via surface ruptures and fissures, as seen in Christchurch, New Zealand in 2011 (Cubrinovski, 2013). The liquefaction associated with the Christchurch earthquakes caused significant disruption to transport infrastructure, and to storm- and wastewater networks, and posed physical and mental health hazards for the exposed community and clean-up (Villemure et al., 2012). From a human health perspective, the liquefaction material posed several hazards. Due to the extensive damage to the sewage disposal networks from lateral spreading and differential settlement, there was a risk that much of the liquefaction ejecta had been contaminated with raw sewage creating a long-term health risk to the population. During hot and windy conditions, the dry finer portions of silt were mobilised by the wind creating a possible respiratory health hazard. Many volunteers were involved in the clean-up operations. Indeed, the much-celebrated Student-Army was successfully used to coordinate the work around the city (Villemure et al., 2012)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/47b6753c-1d96-46a2-b8c2-32d1e2ea5d8f","prefLabel":{"en":"Riverbank Erosion"},"altLabel":{"en":["Stream bank deterioration,","Stream bank disintegration"]},"definition":{"en":"Riverbank erosion is the removal of material from the banks of rivers when flowing water forces exceed bank resisting forces by the soil and vegetation, for example, when river levels are sufficiently high, primarily due to fluvial energy and atmospheric processes and secondarily because of the resultant geotechnical instability and consequential riverbank failure. Riverbank failure can also occur as a consequence of Earth hazards, such as volcanos and earthquakes (USDA, no date).USDA, no date. Stream bank erosion mobilizes sediment that can be transported downstream. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Accessed 21 March 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Riverbank erosion primarily comprises corrasion (abrasion) and mass wasting. River energy, the primary driver for erosion, differs between, along and seasonally within river systems. The speed at which failed sediment masses are mobilised as fluvial sediment load affects the rate of exposure of the riverbank to further erosion. Consequently, riverbank erosion is a discontinuous process, strongly associated with higher energy events such as flooding (Das et al., 2014). Background weathering that facilitates erosion includes processes that are subject to seasonality, and include flooding, precipitation, crack formation, cryogenic processes, poaching and anthropogenic changes to the natural geomorphology (Darby et al., 2007). Bhuiyan et al. (2017) reported that the rivers of Bangladesh are responsible for cumulative annual erosion of up to 10,000 hectares of land. They pointed out that as well as floodplains and settlements, Bangladesh also loses several kilometres of roads, railways, and flood control embankments each year. They stated that no other issues are as disastrous as riverbank erosion with regard to long-term effects on people and society in Bangladesh (Bhuiyan et al., 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/48babe8e-bc76-4bf6-add0-b4bf7de94b2b","prefLabel":{"en":"Rockfall"},"altLabel":{"en":["Block fall,","Boulder fall","Rock fall (Varnes 1978),","Rock free fall,"]},"definition":{"en":"Rockfall is a fragment of rock (a block) detached by sliding, toppling, or falling, that falls along a vertical or sub-vertical cliff, and proceeds down slope by bouncing and flying along ballistic trajectories or by rolling on talus or debris slopes (Highland and Bobrowsky, 2008).Highland, L.M. and P. Bobrowsky, 2008. The Landslide Handbook – A guide to understanding landslides. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1325.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Falls are abrupt, downward movements of rock or earth, or both, that detach from steep slopes or cliffs. The falling material usually strikes the lower slope at angles less than the angle of fall, causing bouncing. The falling mass may break on impact, may begin rolling on steeper slopes, and may continue until the terrain flattens (Sassa et al., 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/309a95e8-c684-454b-8b49-6268c3e0e3b6","prefLabel":{"en":"Sand Encroachment"},"definition":{"en":"Sand encroachment occurs generally in arid to semi-arid regions when grains of sand are carried by winds and form sandy accumulation on coasts, along water courses and on cultivated or uncultivated land. As the accumulations of sand (dunes) move, they bury towns, roads, oases, crops, market gardens, irrigation channels and dams, thus causing major material and socioeconomic damage (FAO, 2010).FAO, 2010. Fighting sand encroachment. Lessons from Mauritania. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 26 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Different factors and processes foster the formation and movement of sand masses, such as violent wind blowing over large areas, sparse or stunted vegetation, and degraded soil that is mobile, dry or bare (Khalaf and Al-ajmi, 1993; FAO, 2010). Sand particles in movement are the site of various interactions, the main ones being: When the wind grows lighter, it loses its capacity to carry sand particles, which are then dropped (FAO, 2010). Forms of sandy accumulation vary widely, depending on landform, the nature of the soil on which they encroach, the presence or lack of vegetation, and the size of the grains of sand (Hamdan et al., 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/33e88ac9-486b-4da2-926f-a2f1d97e7d5f","prefLabel":{"en":"Sediment Rock Avalanche"},"altLabel":{"en":["Rock fall-debris avalanche"]},"definition":{"en":"Rock avalanches are a translational form of mass movement where the transported material is dry rock that is fragmented before or during slope failure. They are rapid with long runouts and large volumes and often involve the entrainment of slope material, commonly therefore, giving rise to debris slides or flows. The motion of rock avalanches is massive such that the bulk of the rock fragments move together as a largely coherent mass (adapted from Collins, 2014 and USGS, no date).Collins, G.S., 2014. Rock avalanche. In: Encyclopedia of Planetary Landforms. Springer. Accessed 15 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Volcanos and earthquakes are commons triggers for rock avalanches. They can occur in all rock types but are associated with rock that is more competent. Large rock avalanches are hypermobile and exhibit more movement than predicted from frictional models incorporating air entrainment, pore pressures or fine bed layers (Hungr et al., 2001, 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/81251530-f7a2-4773-ad2f-dd2d618bf93a","prefLabel":{"en":"Shrink-Swell Subsidence"},"altLabel":{"en":["Clay shrink-swell,","Expansive clay subsidence,","Pipe clays (American term)","Problem soils,"]},"definition":{"en":"Subsidence is a lowering or collapse of the ground, caused by various factors, including groundwater lowering, sub-surface mining or tunnelling, consolidation, sinkholes, or changes in moisture content in expansive soils. Shrink-swell is the term applied to the behaviour of expansive soils, which are a group of soils that exhibit volumetric change in response to changes in moisture content, such that they shrink in response to desiccation and swell by hydration, resulting in ground subsidence and ground heave respectively (BGS, 2020).BGS, 2020. Swelling and Shrinking Soils. British Geological Survey (BGS). Accessed 27 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The properties of expansive soils are attributable to the presence of swelling clay minerals. These clays range in their potential to absorb water according to their different structures. Expansive clay groups with increasing susceptibility to swelling include kandites (e.g., kaolinite, haloysite), illites (e.g., phengite, glauconite), vermiculites and smectites (e.g., montmorillonite, talc). These minerals are a product of weathering, commonly formed on land and then transported to the oceans. Their distribution reflects the underlying source rock geology, its diagenesis and stress history (e.g., stress-induced smectite to illite transformations) and the nature of the weathering, for example, wet climates are associated with kaolinite rich soils and dry environments are characterised by smectite clays (Eberl, 1984)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b3ad7dab-e904-4467-8154-366f95ecfe69","prefLabel":{"en":"Sinkhole"},"altLabel":{"en":["Doline cenote,","Sink,","Sink-hole,","Swallet,","Swallow"]},"definition":{"en":"A sinkhole is a closed depression in karst (a landscape resulting from the dissolution of soluble rock) by current or palaeo internal drainage, also known as a doline. This is one of several hazards that result in subsidence, i.e., lowering or collapse of the ground (adapted from USGS, no date; and BGS, no date).BGS, no date. Understanding sinkholes and karst. British Geological Survey (BGS). Accessed 25 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Dolines (sinkholes) are part of the hydrological system that shapes karst landscapes and can be considered in terms of fluid recharge, through-flow and discharge (e.g., springs and discharge points). Their rates of formation reflect the lithological and hydrological conditions (head and discharge). For example, of the soluble rocks and given a comparable hydrogeological setting, the rate of dissolution of salt > gypsum > Mesozoic limestone > Palaeozoic limestone (Waltham et al., 2004). There is an increasing awareness that dissolution may result from both meteoric recharge and groundwater or hypogene fluid flow (water or other fluids and gases) (Dublyansky, 2014). Groundwater chemistry is also important in influencing the rate and distribution of sinkholes. For example, while limestone is only very weakly soluble in water of neutral pH, its solubility increases in acidic conditions, such as due to the input of carbon dioxide from biological transpiration or due to the oxidation of pyrite. Commonly, the mixing of water from different flow paths results in increased dissolution potential. Sinkholes are classified in accordance with the mode of formation, including but not limited to the following (e.g., Waltham et al., 2004): a dissolution sinkhole is formed by dissolutional lowering of the exposed soluble rock surface in and around zones of water recharge to soluble rock; a subsidence sinkhole results from recharge water mobilisation of sediment into underlying cavernous rock; a suffosion sinkhole is formed due to recharge water mobilisation of sediment through unconsolidated sediment cover over karst; a collapse sinkhole results from the collapse of insoluble capping rock into underlying cavernous rock; a buried sinkhole is sediment filled; while a drop out sinkhole is formed rapidly due to soil cover collapse. The triggering of sinkholes can also be the result of either surface or subsurface changes in load or groundwater conditions. Other types of karst hollow (EPA, 2002) with internal drainage include karst geomorphological features referred to as uvala (a closed depression with multiple recharge points), polje (a closed depression with a wide flat-floored and long axis developed parallel to major structural trends), and cockpit (a star-shaped depression with a concave floor and surrounded by steep convex hill slopes). The manifestation of collapse subsidence associated with mining can be comparable to that of sinkholes. Sinkholes can also occur in specific non-soluble rock settings such as lava tubes or pseudokarst. Although a natural process, the formation of sinkholes is often accelerated or triggered by human action. Many new sinkholes have been correlated to land-use practices, especially from groundwater pumping and construction and development practices. Sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed, and new water-diversion systems are developed. Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created. The substantial weight of the new material can trigger an underground collapse of supporting material, causing a sinkhole (USGS, no date). The overburden sediments that cover buried cavities in some aquifer systems are delicately balanced by groundwater fluid pressure, whereby the water below ground is actually helping to keep the surface soil in place. Groundwater pumping for urban water supply and for irrigation can produce new sinkholes in sinkhole-prone areas. If pumping results in a lowering of groundwater levels, then underground structural failure, and thus, sinkholes, can occur (USGS, no date). Broken land drains, water mains and sewerage pipes, increased rainfall, storm events, modified drainage and diverted surface water can all help wash sediment into the underlying limestone, causing subsidence. There have been many well documented occurrences of sinkholes forming beneath broken water mains, unlined storm-water culverts and leaking swimming pools (BGS, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/78a1490d-042e-4ddf-96fc-b9beb5ab139f","prefLabel":{"en":"Submarine Landslide"},"altLabel":{"en":["Debris flow,","Liquefaction flow,","Mass movement,","Mudflow,","Slump,","Turbidity current"]},"definition":{"en":"A submarine landslide is a downslope movement of sediment or rock under the effect of gravity, which occurs when the stresses acting downslope exceed the available strength of the sediment on the slope (Lee et al., 2007).Lee, H.J., J. Locat, P. Desgagnés, J,.D. Parsons, B.G. McAdoo, D.L. Orange, P. Puig, F. Wong, P. Dartnell and E. Boulanger, 2007. Submarine mass movements on continental margins. In: Continental Margin Sedimentation. pp. 213-274. Wiley.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Submarine landslides occur preferentially in particular environments, including fjords, active river deltas, submarine canyons, volcanic islands and the open continental slope. Evaluating the relative stability of different types of seabed sediment requires an understanding of driving stresses and sediment strength. Stresses can be caused by gravity, earthquakes and storm waves. Resisting strength can be reduced by pore water and gas pressures, groundwater seepage, rapid sediment deposition, cyclic loading and human activity. Once slopes have become unstable or have failed, sediment strength may continue to decrease so, following slope failure, the failed mass moves downslope under the influence of gravity and possibly other forces. If the moving sediment is a viscous fluid, this is termed a mass flow (gravity flow). If the movements are essentially rigid, internally undeformed masses along discrete slip planes, they are termed slides. If the movement is formed of ‘blocks’ of failed material which rotate along curved slip, they are termed slumps. Another kind of landslide involves movement on a planar surface and is termed a translational slide. In each type, movement can be fast or slow. Extremely slow movement is called creep. Submarine slides can become mass flows (gravity flows) as the failed mass progressively disintegrates and continuous downslope movement occurs. End members of disintegrating slides have different terms. Debris flows are where the sediment is heterogeneous and may include larger clasts supported by a matrix of fine sediment. Mud flows are predominantly muddy sediment. Turbidity currents involve the downslope transport of a relatively dilute suspension of sediment grains that are supported by an upward component of fluid turbulence. Recent submarine landslide research has: (i) shown that landslides and sediment waves may generate similar deposits, which require careful interpretation; (ii) expanded knowledge of how strength develops in marine sediment; (iii) improved techniques for predicting sediment rheology; and (iv) developed methodologies for mapping and predicting the medium- to large-scale regional occurrence of submarine landslides. Based on the identification of the different submarine sediment failures identified above and the classification of subaerial landslides (Varnes, 1958; Hungr, 2014), submarine landslides may be classified as mass sediment movements termed slides (translational and rotational slumps) and mass flows (mudflow, debris flow, liquefaction and turbidity current). Almost all submarine landslides have multiple causes, which differ significantly to their subaerial counterparts, for example, seabed slope is not that important as shown by the largest volume submarine landslides being located on the shallowest slopes. Submarine landslides are triggered either by an increase in the driving stresses, a decrease in sediment strength, or a combination of the two. The following triggers show the interplay of these factors, but their relative importance is not well understood. For example, in some environments one of these triggers will dominate, whereas in others a different trigger will be most significant. The main triggers identified for submarine landslides are erosion (undercutting the landslide foot), a rapid rate of sedimentation and earthquakes. Erosion is common in deep-sea channels, submarine canyons and other active sediment-transport systems. When seabed surfaces are undercut, this can decrease the stability by increasing shear stress and/or decreasing the shear strength. With underwater earthquakes, the earthquake-induced shear stresses are large relative to sediment shear strength because the earthquake must accelerate all the sediment column including the interstitial water. The sediment shear strength is relatively low because it builds up in proportion to the submerged unit weight of the sediment and may be even lower if there are excess pore pressures. The ratio of driving stress to resisting strength is high relative to that on land. Rapid sediment accumulation contributes to failure in several ways. Because most of the weight of newly added sediment is carried by pore-water pressures. The shear stress acting downslope increases more rapidly. The shear stress may also increase because more sediment may be deposited at the head of the sloping surface than at the toe. In addition, the following may result in failure: retarded sediment shear strength development, increased development of shear stress because of thickness of the sediment body, and increased development of shear stress because of increases in the slope steepness. Metrics and numeric limits Landslide sediment movement has been measured in two events from breakage of submarine telephone cables. These indicate velocities of up to 28 m/s or 101 km/h (Grand Banks, 1929) and 5 to 16 m/s (18–57 km/h) in the Strait of Luzon between Taiwan and the Philippines between 2006 and 2015."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/65368805-8348-4333-8c8a-65457d058b9f","prefLabel":{"en":"Subsidence and Uplift Including Shoreline Change"},"altLabel":{"en":["Coseismic subsidence","Ground deformation,","Subsidence,","Surface faulting,","Uplift,"]},"definition":{"en":"Subsidence is a lowering or collapse of the ground (BGS, 2020). Uplift is the converse.BGS, 2020. Subsidence and shrinking and swelling soils. British Geological Survey (BGS). Accessed 27 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Subsidence and uplift are caused by many factors, including the impacts of mining or tunnelling, consolidation, sinkholes, or of groundwater and moisture changes on expansive soils (BGS, 2020). Such near-surface, relatively shallow crustal, or humangenerated processes, are often localised. Several crustal scale processes also drive subsidence and uplift that tend to be more regional in scale. Crustal movements occur in response to several different mechanisms, including tectonic, glacio-isostatic (Milne et al., 2006), erosional isostatic (denudation; Watts, 2001) and hydro-isostatic (Watts, 2001) processes. These operate over different timescales and different wavelengths. Crustal movements, climate change-driven sea-level rise and erosionderived sedimentation can result in shoreline change. Tectonic uplift and subsidence are the distributed vertical permanent ground deformations (warping) that result from displacement on a dipping (inclined) fault (Styron, 2019). Earthquake surface ruptures and fissures are localised ground displacements that develop during and immediately after an earthquake, where the fault which hosted the earthquake intersects the Earth’s surface. Surface ruptures represent the upward continuation of fault slip at depth, while fissures are smaller displacements, or more distributed deformation in and around the rupture area (PNSN, no date). Volcanic uplift and subsidence are deformations of the ground associated with volcanic unrest and eruptions (Dzurisin, 2007). Hydro-isostatic and erosional-isostatic deformation occur in response to the stress changes induced by changing ground water levels and load (erosion). Hydro-isostatic movements are largely anthropogenic or climatic and therefore commonly seasonal. Ground-level rise is commonly associated with plate subduction zones, such as the Himalayas where the Eurasian and Indian plates converge (USGS, 2015). Uplift can also be driven by swelling, or mantle plumes, such as the Iceland Plume form in higher temperature regions of the Earth’s mantle. Subsidence may be associated with plates moving apart, for example in rift valleys such as the Ethiopian rift valley. The relative motion of the crust on either side of faulting associated with earthquakes results in persistent or permanent deformation of the Earth’s surface. Surface ruptures, fissures, and uplift and subsidence are all manifestations of this longer-term deformation, and although less dramatic, may all pose hazards during and after earthquakes. Lithospheric flexure also responds to extensional and compressional tectonic forces, including movement associated with the formation of rift valleys (commonly associated with plate boundaries) and mountain belts as well as strike slip faults and fault zones (Watts, 2001). In the coastal environment, as well as the potential tectonic impacts, sediment and global sea-level rise impact on shore-line change. Sediment loading can exacerbate regional subsidence, thereby increasing the relative sea-level rise. In coastal areas where accelerated glacial wasting has been reported, glacio-isostatic rebound results in a relative rise in ground level, as exemplified in the wasting of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (Simon et al., 2016). Local-to-regional scale subsidence and uplift resulting from changes in groundwater or porewater pressures occur in areas that are underlain by compressible and elastically deforming soils responding to groundwater withdrawal. Cohesive soils commonly exhibit seasonal changes in moisture content that can be associated with local subsidence (e.g., Simic et al., 2015). Anthropogenic impacts on ground level, primarily result from dewatering for potable supply or for subsurface mining or engineering (Cigna et al., 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1be9edea-1249-4790-8e18-d2caa0028b1a","prefLabel":{"en":"Tsunami (Submarine Landslide Trigger)"},"definition":{"en":"Tsunami is a Japanese term meaning wave (‘nami’) in a harbour (‘tsu’). It is a series of travelling waves of extremely long length and period. They are usually generated by seabed disturbances associated with earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor, but also by other mechanisms such as submarine landslides (IOC, 2019).Source: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"},"example":{"en":"- Investments in extension services often increase farmer knowledge and access to agricultural resources. In places where the climate is marked by increasing variability, extension services can help farmers understand how to interpret seasonal forecasts such that they select appropriate seed varieties for likely seasonal conditions. In this example, the extension services provide an adaptive capacity benefit, while the seeds the farmers learn how to access provide a sensitivity benefit. \n- Investment in local planning capacity can yield improved zoning and land management in urban areas, allowing municipalities to avert impacts like flooding by reducing the land use driver of this challenge. Here, the investment in improved planning is an adaptive capacity benefit, which yields an exposure benefit by improving the quality of zoning and land management to reduce flooding.\nSource: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3e1c8c07-19a2-440a-af20-004aa86d16f8","prefLabel":{"en":"Exposure benefit"},"definition":{"en":"An intervention provides an exposure benefit if it lowers the frequency and/or magnitude of impacts on a person, population, or system targeted by the project.Source: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"},"example":{"en":"• An infrastructure investment moves a transportation corridor further from the coast to avoid existing or projected flooding. \n• A project supports the planting of urban tree cover to lower the urban heat island effect, reducing daytime temperatures, speeding night time cooling, and thus reducing the number of days and hours in which the population is exposed to dangerous overheating.Source: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ef17d61e-13fe-4b62-be33-72866b29c956","prefLabel":{"en":"Sensitivity benefit"},"definition":{"en":"An intervention provides a sensitivity benefit if it reduces the impact of a climate-related event on a person, population, or system –that is, the event still occurs with the same/greater frequency and magnitude, but the person, population, or system is not as affected by the event as before the intervention.Source: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"},"example":{"en":"- An infrastructure investment builds a roadway out of more durable, permeable materials to allow increasingly-frequent floodwaters to pass and recede quickly with minimal damage.\n- A project identifies a sustainable source of irrigation, allowing farmers to plant crops that demand predictable, regular sources of water even as seasonal rainfall becomes increasingly unpredictable.\nSource: Carr and Nalau, 2023. Accessed 21 July 2026.
"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/200f9c9e-6fb3-4733-9e61-04e70eb5a3a5","prefLabel":{"en":"Co-benefits"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ancillary benefits"]},"definition":{"en":"A positive effect that a policy or measure aimed at one objective has on another objective, thereby increasing the total benefit to society or the environment. Co-benefits are also referred to as ancillary benefits."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8a4c24b2-9d6e-4865-ba74-7532d7eaa7f2","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk reduction (outcome)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/19f5ce2e-8a80-4b13-a705-2bbc232655b0","prefLabel":{"en":"Avoidance of total loss"},"definition":{"en":"Avoiding catastrophic loss (e.g. complete crop loss)"},"example":{"en":"•Stagger planting\n•Diversification\n•Maintain seed reserves"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/97780b6c-d282-4429-8cde-74b4ef29db20","prefLabel":{"en":"Faster recovery"},"definition":{"en":"Reduced time to return to normal conditions after shocks"},"example":{"en":"•Seed storage\n•Savings groups\n•Credit access\n•Extension training\n•Crop insurance"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c4436409-07ec-4288-85ff-e4b7f63db4dc","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved food security"},"definition":{"en":"More stable access to sufficient food"},"example":{"en":"•Crop diversification\n•Grain storage\n•Livelihood diversification"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/359458dc-5e5c-495b-ae73-b50cdc39198c","prefLabel":{"en":"Improved resilience"},"definition":{"en":"Improved resilience through building adaptive capacity (e.g. knowledge, finance, social networks)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/157bb755-e983-4037-9675-0e3c2ffcc1c2","prefLabel":{"en":"Increased income stability"},"definition":{"en":"Reduced income variability despite climate shocks"},"example":{"en":"•Non-farm employment\n•Migration\n•Small businesses"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5b47afe9-fdf6-4ff5-ba5d-745ab2945f74","prefLabel":{"en":"Reduced losses"},"definition":{"en":"Lower physical or economic damage during floods, droughts, storms, or heat."},"example":{"en":"•Drainage systems\n•Elevating houses\n•Adjusting planting calendar"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5b4087d7-a351-4246-a365-3af6e08280bc","prefLabel":{"en":"Reduced variability in yield"},"definition":{"en":"Reduced variability in crop or livestock production across years"},"example":{"en":"•Crop diversification\n•Intercropping\n•Drought tolerant varieties\n•Soil management"}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a7d9407-34ee-4cb8-b218-e140ec215a7c","prefLabel":{"en":"Ozone-depleting substances (ODSs)"},"definition":{"en":"Man-made gases that destroy ozone (O3) once they reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Ozone-depleting substances include: chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), halons, methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform. They are used as refrigerants in commercial, home and vehicle air conditioners and refrigerators, foam blowing agents, components in electrical equipment, industrial solvents, solvents for cleaning (including dry cleaning), aerosol spray propellants and fumigants."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0876502c-c556-460b-80cf-e988d976eeaf","prefLabel":{"en":"Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV)"},"definition":{"en":"Coupled decadal-to-inter-decadal variability of the atmospheric circulation and underlying ocean that is typically observed over the entire Pacific Basin beyond the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) time scale. In the AR6 WGI report, PDV encapsulates the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), the South Pacific Decadal Oscillation (SPDO), tropical Pacific decadal variability (also called decadal ENSO), and the Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO). Typically, the positive phase of the PDV is characterized by anomalously high sea surface temperatures in the central-eastern tropical Pacific that extend to the extratropical North and South Pacific along the American coasts, encircled to the west by cold sea surface anomalies in the mid-latitude North and South Pacific. The negative phase is accompanied by sea surface temperature anomalies of the opposite sign. Those sea surface temperature anomalies are linked to anomalies in atmospheric and oceanic circulation throughout the whole Pacific Basin. The PDV is associated with decadal modulations in the relative occurrence of El Niño and La Niña. See Section AIV.2.6 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/873a86a3-be92-4636-abc5-2d301a75d9dd","prefLabel":{"en":"Inter-decadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO)"},"definition":{"en":"An equatorially symmetric pattern of sea surface temperature variability at decadal-to-inter-decadal time scales. While the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and its South Pacific counterpart, the South Pacific Decadal Oscillation (SPDO), are considered as physically distinct modes, the tropical Pacific decadal–inter-decadal variability can drive both the PDO and SPDO, forming the IPO as a synchronized pan-Pacific variability. Its spatial pattern of sea surface temperature anomalies is similar to that of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), but with a broader meridional extent in the tropical signal and more weights in the extratropics compared to the tropics. In the AR6 WGI report, it is encapsulated within the definition and description of Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV). See also Section AIV.2.6 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6f3c323b-27ef-48e7-a290-3531d11e5950","prefLabel":{"en":"Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)"},"definition":{"en":"The leading mode of variability obtained from decomposition in empirical orthogonal function of sea surface temperature over the North Pacific north of 20°N, and characterized by a strong decadal component. The positive phase of the PDO features a dipole of sea surface temperature anomalies in the North Pacific, with a cold lobe near the centre of the basin and extending westward along the Kuroshio, encircled by warmer conditions along the coast of North America and in the subtropics. A positive PDO is accompanied by an intensified Aleutian Low and an associated cyclonic circulation enhancement leading to teleconnections over the continents adjacent to the North Pacific. In the AR6 WGI report, the PDO is encapsulated within the definition and description of Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV). See also Section AIV.2.6 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0a0317c6-fc36-443e-a65e-8e35ed1926c4","prefLabel":{"en":"Pacific-North American (PNA) pattern"},"definition":{"en":"An atmospheric large-scale wave pattern featuring a sequence of tropospheric high and low pressure anomalies stretching from the subtropical west Pacific to the east coast of North America."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f786b07f-947e-4e6e-b401-84b26f2c5fe3","prefLabel":{"en":"Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM)"},"definition":{"en":"The PETM is a transient event that occurred between 55.9 and 55.7 million years ago. Continental positions at this time were somewhat different to present due to tectonic plate movements. Geological data indicate that the PETM was characterised by a warming (global mean surface temperature rose to about 4°C–7 °C warmer than the preceding mean state), and an increase in atmospheric CO2 (from about 900 to about 2000 ppmv). In addition, ocean pH and oxygen content decreased; many deep-sea species went extinct and tropical coral reefs diminished."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7bde8c65-f791-4824-a166-6abeec9430d0","prefLabel":{"en":"Paleoclimate"},"definition":{"en":"Climate during periods prior to the development of measuring instruments, including historic and geologic time, for which only proxy climate records are available."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/261b2c51-8eac-4c75-ab44-c3ce617acf5a","prefLabel":{"en":"Ice age"},"definition":{"en":"An informal term for a geological period characterized by a long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth’s climate, resulting in the presence or expansion of ice sheets and glaciers. Among the Earth’s ice ages is the current Quaternary Period, characterized by alternating glacial and interglacial intervals."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7ada04f4-5e5f-4fdb-bae5-ccd239d70e50","prefLabel":{"en":"Interglacial or interglaciation"},"definition":{"en":"A globally warm period lasting thousands of years between glacial periods within an ice age. Generally coincides with odd-numbered marine isotope stages (MIS) when mean sea level was close to present. The Last Interglacial (LIG) occurred between about 129 and 116 ka (thousand years) before present (defined as 1950) although the warm period started in some areas a few thousand years earlier. In terms of MIS, interglaciations are defined as the interval between the midpoint of the preceding termination and the onset of the next glaciation. The LIG coincides with MIS 5e. The present interglaciation, the Holocene, started at 11,700 years before 2000 CE, although global mean sea level did not approach its present position until roughly 7000 years ago."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/86aacef6-f459-44a7-abf5-21e3a7779ea4","prefLabel":{"en":"Interstadial or interstade"},"definition":{"en":"A brief period of regional climatic warming during a glacial or interglacial interval, often characterized by transient glacial retreats. Interstadials are generally of short duration (hundreds to a few thousand years) compared to glacial or interglacial intervals (lasting many thousands to tens of thousands of years). One example of a regional interstadial event is based on millennial scale warming recorded by oxygen isotope ratios in Greenland ice cores, the so called “Greenland Interstadials” (Johnsen et al., 1992)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/672c06a4-dc87-45b3-8177-129f6f5bd1bd","prefLabel":{"en":"Pandemic"},"definition":{"en":"A worldwide outbreak of a disease in humans in numbers clearly in excess of normal (WHO, 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a35d95b6-e72f-4b29-ad4c-9c2bbc5ecf3d","prefLabel":{"en":"Paratyphoid fever (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Paratyphoid fever is a systemic disease caused by the bacterium Salmonella Paratyphi usually through ingestion of contaminated food or water (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Typhoid. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 13 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Paratyphoid fever is caused by Salmonella Paratyphi A and B (or uncommonly Paratyphi C) and is similar to Typhoid (WHO, 2019). Humans are the only source of these bacteria; no animal or environmental reservoirs have been identified (WHO, 2018). The onset of illness is insidious, with gradually increasing fatigue and a fever that increases daily from low-grade to high. Headache, malaise, and anorexia are nearly universal, and abdominal pain, diarrhoea, or constipation are common (Appiah et al., 2019). Paratyphoid fever is usually described as less severe than typhoid fever (Appiah et al., 2019; WHO, 2019). Blood culture is the mainstay of diagnosis in typhoid and paratyphoid fever. Bone marrow and stool cultures can also be used (Gupta et al., 2008; Appiah et al., 2019). There are no definitive rapid diagnostic tests for paratyphoid fever. Initial diagnosis often has to be made clinically. Paratyphoid and typhoid fevers are clinically indistinguishable (Gupta et al., 2008; Appiah et al., 2019). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and World Health Organization (WHO) have published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (Appiah et al., 2019; WHO, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b7311236-a236-4ba3-8a68-5574ef62514f","prefLabel":{"en":"Pareto optimum"},"definition":{"en":"A state in which no one’s welfare can be increased without reducing someone one’s welfare."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cd06e52a-b6be-4c1c-beed-e6bdd42ffcc8","prefLabel":{"en":"Participation"},"definition":{"en":"People being actively involved with policy makers and service planners from an early stage of policy and service planning and review, to shape and influence the outcomes and decisions. Organisations may engage in conversations (which could be in person, digital, asynchronous etc.) with citizens to gather and understand their views on a topic. This can inform the organisation’s thinking and decisions (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Participation differs from consultation in that the questions, and the format / method are less narrow and specific. It’s also not co-production because it doesn’t require shared power or shared decision-making (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nExamples may include drop-in events about infrastructure developments and workshops or focus groups about proposed changes (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2f919396-26fe-4264-b3f0-e0120720e397","prefLabel":{"en":"Participatory research"},"definition":{"en":"Participatory research encompasses research designs, methods, and frameworks that use systematic inquiry in direct collaboration with those affected by an issue being studied for the purpose of action or change. Participatory research engages those who are not necessarily trained in research but belong to or represent the interests of the people who are the focus of the research (Vaughn and Jacquez, 2020).\n\nSource: Vaughn and Jacquez, 2020.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nCommunity stakeholders can be engaged in research design, process and implementation (e.g. as research commissioners, advisory group members, co-researchers or peer researchers). In projects with ‘deep participation’, ownership lies with the community rather than outside researchers (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Participatory research, like peer research and community research, can sometimes be referred to as a co-productive approach to research. A co-productive approach to research, or public involvement in research, is research being carried out ‘with’ or ‘by’ citizens instead of ‘to’, ‘about’ or ‘for’ them. This is based on the belief that people affected by the topic of the research and the knowledge generated by the research are best placed to design, deliver and analyse it, and have knowledge and skills that are valuable to the research. Citizens are involved as equals in all aspects of the research. The activities might include working alongside designers or researchers to decide which research projects to prioritise, shape the research goals and questions, develop research materials, conduct interviews, collect and analyse the data, draw out insights from the data, and being credited as part of the team in the published results (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022). \n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales (2022). Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0fbb3854-6174-440b-8d9a-21d347d5d130","prefLabel":{"en":"Pasture"},"definition":{"en":"Area covered with grass or other plants used or suitable for grazing of livestock; grassland."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1dbe3980-c16d-47bd-818b-150bae30ef0b","prefLabel":{"en":"Pathways"},"definition":{"en":"The temporal evolution of natural and/or human systems towards a future state. Pathway concepts range from sets of quantitative and qualitative scenarios or narratives of potential futures to solution-oriented decision-making processes to achieve desirable societal goals. Pathway approaches typically focus on biophysical, techno-economic, and/or socio-behavioural trajectories and involve various dynamics, goals, and actors across different scales (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7361f763-e600-4532-a343-cf7c98ac4dae","prefLabel":{"en":"1.5°C pathway"},"definition":{"en":"A pathway of emissions of greenhouse gases and other climate forcers that provides an approximately one-in-two to two-in-three chance, given current knowledge of the climate response, of global warming either remaining below 1.5°C or returning to 1.5°C by around 2100 following an overshoot."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2bc764bb-860a-4d14-814d-72b8bdd68012","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation pathways"},"definition":{"en":"A series of adaptation choices involving trade-offs between short-term and long-term goals and values. These are processes of deliberation to identify solutions that are meaningful to people in the context of their daily lives and to avoid potential maladaptation (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term 'adaptation pathways' has been applied in a number of different ways, which include: i): Adaptation roadmaps or pathway frameworks, which consider portfolios of adaptation that change over time, to allow analysis of the timing and sequencing of adaptation and identify priorities; ii) Adaptive management, which is an iterative cycle of monitoring, research, evaluation and learning, i.e. a process, that is used to improve future management strategies (also called iterative risk management); iii) Dynamic adaptation route-maps, which focus on decision making under uncertainty and identify adaptation tipping points (or turning points), the point at which a particular action is no longer adequate for meeting the plan’s objectives, that act as triggers for a change in adaptation (CCRA3 Technical Team, 2021)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ee8b0c2e-3a8a-4186-b288-a0b318ec3474","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate resilient development pathways (CRDPs)"},"definition":{"en":"Trajectories that strengthen sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty and reduce inequalities while promoting fair and cross-scalar adaptation to and resilience in a changing climate. They raise the ethics, equity and feasibility aspects of the deep societal transformation needed to drastically reduce emissions to limit global warming (e.g., to well below 2°C) and achieve desirable and liveable futures and well-being for all."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/411609bc-7b0d-413b-a6c2-b8f46e73de65","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate-resilient pathways"},"definition":{"en":"Iterative processes for managing change within complex systems in order to reduce disruptions and enhance opportunities associated with climate change."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d8f2c82a-d85e-44dd-a9f6-ed5a1498b827","prefLabel":{"en":"Development pathways"},"definition":{"en":"Development pathways evolve as the result of the countless decisions being made and actions being taken at all levels of societal structure, as well due to the emergent dynamics within and between institutions, cultural norms, technological systems and other drivers of behavioural change. "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/87723bec-f29d-4ff3-87ed-d14dc4fa1981","prefLabel":{"en":"Emission pathways"},"definition":{"en":"Modelled trajectories of global anthropogenic emissions over the 21st century."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a7a8a85e-dcc9-4945-8181-6ac33ca68ed9","prefLabel":{"en":"Mitigation pathways"},"definition":{"en":"A temporal evolution of a set of mitigation scenario features, such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and socio-economic development."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4a98e5e1-bead-4766-8bf0-bcd83cafd6c6","prefLabel":{"en":"Non-overshoot pathways"},"definition":{"en":"Pathways that stay below a specified concentration, forcing, or global warming level during a specified period of time (e.g., until 2100)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1aaf3639-ae98-4b2f-8bce-6429d88ee749","prefLabel":{"en":"Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)"},"definition":{"en":"Scenarios that include time series of emissions and concentrations of the full suite of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols and chemically active gases, as well as land use/land cover (Moss et al.,2008; van Vuuren et al., 2011). The word representative signifies that each RCP provides only one of many possible scenarios that would lead to the specific radiative forcing characteristics. The term pathway emphasises that not only the long-term concentration levels are of interest, but also the trajectory taken over time to reach that outcome (Moss et al., 2010; van Vuuren et al., 2011).\nRCPs usually refer to the portion of the concentration pathway extending up to 2100, for which integrated assessment models produced corresponding emission scenarios. Extended concentration pathways describe extensions of the RCPs from 2100 to 2300 that were calculated using simple rules generated by stakeholder consultations, and do not represent fully consistent scenarios. Four RCPs produced from integrated assessment models were selected from the published literature and used in the IPCC Fifth Assessment and are also used in this Assessment for comparison, spanning the range from approximately below 2°C warming to high (>4°C) warming best-estimates by the end of the 21st century: RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP6.0 and RCP8.5.\n• RCP2.6: One pathway where radiative forcing peaks at approximately 3 W m–2 and then declines to be limited at 2.6 W m–2 in 2100 (the corresponding Extended Concentration Pathway, or ECP, has constant emissions after 2100).\n• RCP4.5 and RCP6.0: Two intermediate stabilisation pathways in which radiative forcing is limited at approximately 4.5 W m–2 and 6.0 W m–2 in 2100 (the corresponding ECPs have constant concentrations after 2150).\n• RCP8.5: One high pathway which leads to >8.5 W m–2 in 2100 (the corresponding ECP has constant emissions after 2100 until 2150 and constant concentrations after 2250)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d64d3a7-3e24-4ba2-988a-6a72b5533e67","prefLabel":{"en":"Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs)"},"definition":{"en":"Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs) have been developed to complement the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). By design, the RCP emission and concentration pathways were stripped of their association with a certain socio-economic development. Different levels of emissions and climate change along the dimension of the RCPs can hence be explored against the backdrop of different socio-economic development pathways (SSPs) on the other dimension in a matrix. This integrative SSP-RCP framework is now widely used in the climate impact and policy analysis literature, where climate projections obtained under the RCP scenarios are analysed against the backdrop of various SSPs. As several emissions updates were due, a new set of emissions scenarios was developed in conjunction with the SSPs. Hence, the abbreviation SSP is now used for two things: On the one hand SSP1, SSP2, …, SSP5 are used to denote the five socio-economic scenario families. On the other hand, the abbreviations SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, …, SSP5-8.5 are used to denote the newly developed emissions scenarios that are the result of an SSP implementation within an integrated assessment model. Those SSP scenarios are bare of climate policy assumption, but in combination with so-called shared policy assumptions (SPAs), various approximate radiative forcing levels of 1.9, 2.6, …, or 8.5 W m–2 are reached by the end of the century, respectively."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/99fc38a5-2399-4060-a2c8-5ff0255572dd","prefLabel":{"en":"Transformation pathway"},"definition":{"en":"The trajectory taken over time to meet different goals for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, atmospheric concentrations, or global mean surface temperature change that implies a set of economic, technological, and behavioural changes. This can encompass changes in the way energy and infrastructure is used and produced, natural resources are managed, institutions are set up, and in the pace and direction of technological change (TC)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ac850a0b-0317-4a49-a90b-5e60dbeea1db","prefLabel":{"en":"Pattern scaling"},"definition":{"en":"Techniques used to represent the spatial variations in climate at a given increase in global mean surface air temperature (GSAT) are referred to as ‘pattern scaling’."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/48336269-912e-471b-ac4f-b9ced08dcebe","prefLabel":{"en":"Pertussis (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Whooping cough"]},"definition":{"en":"Pertussis is a highly contagious disease of the respiratory tract caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis (WHO, no date).WHO, no date. Pertussis. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 15 November 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a highly contagious respiratory infection caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. In 2018, there were more than 151,000 cases of pertussis globally (CDC, 2019). Pertussis spreads easily from person to person mainly through droplets produced by coughing or sneezing. The disease is most dangerous in infants and is a significant cause of disease and death in this age group (WHO, 2018). The first symptoms generally appear 7 to 10 days after infection. They include a mild fever, runny nose and cough, which in typical cases gradually develops into a hacking cough followed by whooping (hence the common name of ‘whooping cough’). Pneumonia is a relatively common complication, and seizures and brain disease occur rarely. People with pertussis are most contagious up to about 3 weeks after the cough begins, and many children who contract the infection have coughing spells that last 4 to 8 weeks. Antibiotics are used to treat the infection (WHO, no date). Pertussis is diagnosed clinically by its symptoms and through laboratory confirmation. It should be suspected in anyone with a cough that does not improve within 14 days, a paroxysmal cough of any duration, or any respiratory symptoms after contact with a laboratory-confirmed case of pertussis (WHO, 2020a). Of note the symptoms in infants, in which the highest mortality is seen, may differ strongly from those in older children and adults in that the typical cough may not be present at all. The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7c462c71-33ff-4f65-8609-4c9ab00837b9","prefLabel":{"en":"Peste Des Petits Ruminants (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ovine rinderpest","Sheep and goat plague"]},"definition":{"en":"Peste des petits ruminants is a highly contagious and devastating disease of goats and sheep. The causative agent, Peste des petits ruminants virus is a member of the genus Morbillivirus, Family Paramyxoviridae and Order Mononegavirales (adapted from FAO, 2020a; OiE, 2020).FAO, 2020. Peste des petits ruminants. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 18 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), also known as sheep and goat plague, is a highly contagious animal disease affecting domestic and wild small ruminants. It is caused by a virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus, family Paramixoviridae. Once newly introduced, the virus can infect up to 90% of a small ruminant flock, and the disease kills anywhere up to 70% of infected animals (FAO, 2020). PPR was first described in 1942 in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa. Since then the disease has spread to large regions of Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Europe. Today, more than 70 countries are affected or at high risk and many more are without an official PPR status. PPR infected and at risk countries are home to approximately 1.7 billion heads – around 80% – of the global population of sheep and goats (FAO, 2020). PPR causes annual economic losses of up to USD 2.1 billion. Looking beyond this figure, 300 million families are at risk of losing their livelihoods, food security, and employment opportunities. Moreover, small ruminants and their products are internationally traded commodities, particularly in Africa and the Middle East. PPR considerably affects export earnings and creates supply shortages. The inability of families, communities, and institutions to anticipate, absorb, or recover from PPR can compromise national and regional development efforts, and reverse decades of progress (FAO, 2020). Until recently, this virus was named simply Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV); the official name of this virus was changed in 2016 to small ruminant morbillivirus (SRM). However, it is still commonly known as PPRV by people working in the field. It is antigenically similar to rinderpest virus, measles virus and canine distemper virus. It is transmitted by direct contact with diseased animals. PPR also occurs in some wildlife species, which can act as a source of infection for domestic small ruminants. PPR-infected countries are excluded from international trade of live small ruminants (OIE, 2020a). A PPR outbreak is an emergency due to its rapid spread and high animal mortality rate. Fatal diseases of small ruminants, such as PPR, affect the already vulnerable livelihoods and can decimate the savings of poor populations, especially in pastoral areas. People become desperate when they lose their assets. PPR outbreaks, and the desperation due to the loss, can trigger turmoil, migration, and volatile security situations (FAO, 2020). Eradicating PPR will increase sustainability, alleviate poverty, improve the resilience of poor pastoralists and their communities, enable them to better cope with other shocks and threats, prevent forced migration and mitigate extremist trends (FAO, 2020). As an example, Mongolia reported its first-ever PPR outbreaks in sheep and goat populations in September 2016. In the absence of an adequate response by local veterinary services, the disease rapidly spread, devastating rural livelihoods, and disrupting exports and value chains. In December 2016, PPR spilled over to wild antelope species killing up to 60% of the Saiga antelope population, a critically endangered species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (FAO, 2020). Transmission of PPR is mainly by aerosol or direct contact between animals living in close quarters and via fomites spreading infection via bedding, feed, pasture and water troughs (OIE, 2020a). PPR is not a zoonotic infection. There is no known risk of human infection with PPR virus (FAO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/384fad4b-e5b5-43bd-b40c-0ddcba90bb14","prefLabel":{"en":"Phenology"},"definition":{"en":"The relationship between biological phenomena that recur periodically (e.g., development stages, migration) especially related to climate and seasonal changes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a5e8ca4e-7cc6-4790-a1d2-ae930e851634","prefLabel":{"en":"Physical infrastructure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Physical infrastructures"]},"definition":{"en":"Physical objects that are (a) essential to the production, delivery and distribution of products, activities and services, (b) which have economic value, and (c) that are managed as tangible assets. Such assets include traditional infrastructure facilities, like roads, water and sanitation facilities, as well as the land and any buildings required (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e0c50d6-e7d6-4414-858b-1c3fe0489713","prefLabel":{"en":"Plague (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Plague is an acute febrile infectious disease caused by the zoonotic bacteria Yersinia pestis (Dennis et al., 1999).Dennis, D.T., K.L. Gage, N. Gratz, J.D. Poland and E. Tikhomirov, 1999. Plague Manual:
Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. WHO/CDS/CSR/EDC/99.2. World Health
Organization. Accessed 13 December 2019.
Source: Ellis, 2001.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/08801c93-2bb6-4fb5-b53b-7e91e6e70ac3","prefLabel":{"en":"Policies (for climate change mitigation and adaptation)"},"definition":{"en":"Strategies that enable actions to be undertaken to accelerate adaptation and mitigation. Policies include those developed by national and subnational public agencies, and with the private sector. Policies for adaptation and mitigation often take the form of economic incentives, regulatory instruments, and decision-making and engagement processes."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9cb08ff0-bc95-4364-90d2-1cba60be140e","prefLabel":{"en":"Political economy"},"definition":{"en":"The set of interlinked relationships between people, the State, society and markets as defined by law, politics, economics, customs and power that determine the outcome of trade and transactions and the distribution of wealth in a country or economy."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a96c80e6-7ed5-4277-8a0a-366456d8b510","prefLabel":{"en":"Positionality"},"definition":{"en":"Positionality refers to where one is located in relation to their various social identities (gender, race, class, ethnicity, ability, geographical location etc.); the combination of these identities and their intersections shape how we understand and engage with the world, including our knowledges, perspectives, and teaching practices (Queen's University, n.d)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Often used to refer specifically to researchers and the position a researcher has chosen to adopt within a given research study. It necessitates the researcher consciously examining their own identity to allow the reader to assess the effect of their personal characteristics and perspectives in relation to the study population, the topic under study and the research process (Wilson et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/db449c48-05fd-441e-8106-2e3d4f08d3cc","prefLabel":{"en":"Poverty"},"definition":{"en":"A complex concept with several definitions stemming from different schools of thought. It can refer to material circumstances (such as need, pattern of deprivation or limited resources), economic conditions (such as standard of living, inequality or economic position) and/or social relationships (such as social class, dependency, exclusion, lack of basic security or lack of entitlement)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7c2c5816-5226-41a0-a0fd-5193cd605d28","prefLabel":{"en":"Poverty eradication"},"definition":{"en":"A set of measures to end poverty in all its forms everywhere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d8069c54-714d-45ed-9eb4-bb91d6e86aea","prefLabel":{"en":"Power dynamics"},"definition":{"en":"Power dynamics refer to the ways in which authority, influence, and access to resources are distributed and contested among actors involved in climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction. These dynamics shape whose knowledge counts, who makes decisions, and who benefits from interventions. \n\nSee: Wen, J., Wan, C., Ye, Q., Yan, J., & Li, W. (2023). Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Change Adaptation and Their Linkages with Sustainable Development over the Past 30 Years: A Review. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 14, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-023-00472-3[1]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f2bd9a7d-f8ac-42c8-bf76-a8e983f0c3be","prefLabel":{"en":"Power hierarchies"},"altLabel":{"en":["Hierarchies of power"]},"definition":{"en":"Hierarchies of power refer to the structured and often unequal distribution of authority, influence, and decision-making capacity within societies, organizations, or systems. These hierarchies establish who holds control over resources, policies, and social outcomes, and whose voices and interests are marginalized or excluded (Gaventa, 2006).\n\nSource: Gaventa, 2006.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7157e038-fa54-475d-ad2b-37717e1dedf9","prefLabel":{"en":"Pre-industrial (period)"},"definition":{"en":"The multi-century period prior to the onset of large-scale industrial activity around 1750. The reference period 1850–1900 is used to approximate pre-industrial global mean surface temperature (GMST)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f01c3901-8ffc-4cf1-b6d3-444dd9b4946d","prefLabel":{"en":"Private costs"},"definition":{"en":"Costs carried by individuals, companies or other private entities that undertake an action, whereas social costs include additionally the external costs on the environment and on society as a whole. Quantitative estimates of both private and social costs may be incomplete, because of difficulties in measuring all relevant effects."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/69db0708-2c99-4d41-8fee-a5295cf5945d","prefLabel":{"en":"Production-based emissions"},"definition":{"en":"Emissions released to the atmosphere for the production of goods and services by a certain entity (e.g., a person, firm, country, or region). "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4c8ee0b7-4a99-4843-9ec5-0a2659a1aa9d","prefLabel":{"en":"Projection"},"definition":{"en":"A potential future evolution of a quantity or set of quantities, often computed with the aid of a model. Unlike predictions, projections are conditional on assumptions concerning, for example, future socio-economic and technological developments that may or may not be realised."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/64ae1407-5bd3-491f-975f-190e492cda03","prefLabel":{"en":"Prosumers"},"definition":{"en":"A consumer that also produces energy and inputs energy to the system, for which it is an active agent in the energy system and market."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/35235b5a-2830-4bc8-b39c-068ff3d6d293","prefLabel":{"en":"Prototype"},"altLabel":{"en":["Prototypes"]},"definition":{"en":"A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product or system built to test a concept or assumption or to act as a thing to be tested and learned from (Perkins, 2015)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Prototypes do not just refer models. We can prototype any idea - it can be the first draft of a road map, the wording of a policy, the steps of a system (Perkins, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/33d4eb0e-6eb4-48bd-81e5-48210d0265d0","prefLabel":{"en":"Public"},"definition":{"en":"In a research context, the 'public' is anyone beyond academia. It is essential to consider specifically who the ‘audience’ or ‘participant’ of engagement is, and it can be useful to consider the many types of organisations and intermediaries that this includes (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dfadec1c-e52f-4ee8-b442-607dd176d272","prefLabel":{"en":"Public dialogue"},"definition":{"en":"Public dialogues bring together non-experts, policy makers, scientists and other expert stakeholders to deliberate, reflect, and come to conclusions on national public policy issues (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/34c99d20-a846-4327-ae7d-c57de486c109","prefLabel":{"en":"Public involvement"},"definition":{"en":"In a research context, public involvement is defined as research that is done with or by the public and not to, about or for them (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Public involvement requires organisations to be open to influence from citizens and stakeholders. In contrast to consultation, involvement approaches tend to work with people at earlier stages, such as to identify issues and potential solutions. It also fosters engagement throughout design, implementation, and evaluation processes (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales, 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/980a1d35-8702-485a-b0fa-084a065b1e31","prefLabel":{"en":"Q Fever"},"altLabel":{"en":["Abattoir fever","Coxiellosis","Query Fever"]},"definition":{"en":"Q fever is a widespread zoonosis caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii. The respiratory tract is the most common route of infection, which occurs by inhalation of contaminated dust and spray shed from infected animals. Livestock, more specifically dairy goats and cows are considered as the major ‘source’ for human infections; dairy products from infected goats or cows are also an important source of infection (FAO, no date).FAO, no date. The AGRIS Database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 4 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Q fever was first recognised as a human disease in Australia in 1935 and in the USA in the early 1940s. The ‘Q’ stands for ‘query’ and was applied at a time when the cause was unknown (CDC, 2019). Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by infection with Coxiella burnetii that affects humans and other animals. C. burnetii is uncommon, but may be found in cattle, sheep, goats, and other domestic mammals, including cats and dogs. Clinical cases seem to be most significant in sheep and goats, with sporadic losses and occasional outbreaks that may affect up to 50–90% of the herd. The infection results from inhalation of a spore-like small-cell variant, and from contact with the milk, urine, faeces, vaginal mucus, or semen of infected animals. Rarely, the disease is tick-borne (Spickler, 2017). Humans are vulnerable to Q fever, and infection can result from even a few organisms. Some people never get sick; however, those who do usually develop flu-like symptoms including fever, chills, fatigue, and muscle pain (CDC, 2019). The main way of reducing the risk of being infected with Q fever is by avoiding contact with infected animals, especially while animals are giving birth. Be aware that animals can be infected with C. burnetii and appear healthy. People in direct contact with animals during birthing, such as veterinarians and farmers, may be at higher risk for infection. Abattoir workers are also at risk while being in contact with infected carcasses (Spickler, 2017). Coxiella burnetii can survive for long periods in the environment and may be carried long distances by wind. Windborne outbreaks can affect dozens to hundreds of people who have no direct exposure to animals. In one exceptional incident, more than 4000 clinical cases were recognised in the Netherlands between 2007 and 2010. Efforts to end this outbreak resulted in temporary breeding bans and the culling of more than 50,000 small ruminants. The current state of knowledge about C. burnetii is incomplete, and some aspects of infections in humans and animals are still debated or not well understood (Spickler, 2017). In humans, the incubation period for acute Q fever ranges from two days to six weeks, with most patients becoming ill within two to three weeks of exposure. Chronic Q fever is reported to develop months to years after infection, although some of the latter cases could result from delayed diagnosis. Studies from recent outbreaks in the Netherlands suggest that most cases of endocarditis can be detected within a few months to a year of infection (Spickler, 2017). Coxiella burnetii has been found in most countries that have conducted surveillance. However, a few countries or areas, such as New Zealand, Norway, Iceland and French Polynesia, report that they have not found any evidence of this organism in surveys to date (Spickler, 2017). Animal vaccination has been used in areas where infections are common. More generally, sanitary measures to remove afterbirth and birth fluids, and to clean and disinfect areas where animals have given birth can prevent the disease from spreading (OIE, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d7dd549e-f376-4fff-bc81-c5b9c3e70d9b","prefLabel":{"en":"Qualitative research"},"definition":{"en":"A research strategy in which data is explored in non-numeric formats, including text, audio, imagery etc. Normally undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals in relation to social or human problems. It tends to be a strategy associated with inductive reasoning, as well as constructivism and interpretivist approaches to research questions. Its results are not usually considered generalizable, but are often transferable (UNICEF, 2014).\n\nSource: UNICEF (2014). Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Conducting qualitative research with citizens who have lived experience of an issue, through interviews, focus groups, ethnography, observations, or qualitative surveys, does not in itself constitute co-production (even though the techniques used can sometimes look the same as those used in co-production approaches). There is little to no sharing of power when the expertise and decision-making sit with commissioners and researchers. Qualitative research isn’t co-production unless you’re doing co-productive research (The Co-production Network for Wales, 2022).\n\nSource: Co-production Network for Wales (2022). Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/042a627e-0da4-476d-ae13-4f7c151f2781","prefLabel":{"en":"Quantitative research"},"definition":{"en":"A research strategy which emphasises quantification in the collection and analysis of data. It allows the development or testing of a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analysed with statistical processes to determine the relevant relationships among them. Often used to research social and developmental issues that require large data-sets that cannot be analysed validly or reliably using a qualitative research strategy (UNICEF, 2014)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3794f23f-4ea0-499a-afb7-d92a96a093ba","prefLabel":{"en":"Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO)"},"definition":{"en":"A near-periodic oscillation of the equatorial zonal wind between easterlies and westerlies in the tropical stratosphere with a mean period of around 28 months. The alternating wind maxima descend from the base of the mesosphere down to the tropopause and are driven by wave energy that propagates up from the troposphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7c915b40-2cc8-4007-a9a9-e59c64951c0b","prefLabel":{"en":"Radiation management"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba624df3-ae07-4584-82d6-4e93fd46fefe","prefLabel":{"en":"Rebound effect"},"definition":{"en":"Phenomena whereby the reduction in energy consumption or emissions (relative to a baseline) associated with the implementation of mitigation measures in a jurisdiction is offset to some degree through induced changes in consumption, production, and prices within the same jurisdiction. The rebound effect is most typically ascribed to technological energy efficiency improvements."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bc9e7c19-672a-48e4-aa52-bc9a66df6032","prefLabel":{"en":"Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Reducing emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)"]},"definition":{"en":"An effort to create financial value for the carbon stored in forests, offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low-carbon paths to sustainable development (SD). It is therefore a mechanism for mitigation that results from avoiding deforestation. REDD+ goes beyond reforestation and forest degradation, and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. The concept was first introduced in 2005 in the 11th Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) in Montreal and later given greater recognition in the 13th Session of the COP in 2007 at Bali and inclusion in the Bali Action Plan which called for “policy approaches and positive incentives on issues relating to reducing emissions to deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD) and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stock in developing countries”. Since then, support for REDD has increased and has slowly become a framework for action supported by a number of countries."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3eb866d1-69a8-4a85-9e1f-5b8fdcc6ffc9","prefLabel":{"en":"Afforestation"},"definition":{"en":"Conversion to forest of land that historically has not contained forests. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC 2006, 2019; UNFCCC 2021a, b).]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b6a353d3-37cc-4c46-b144-0995fc4864e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Deforestation"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Deforestation is the conversion of forest to other land use independently of whether human-induced or not (FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Terms and Definitions FRA 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 188. Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has monitored the world’s forests at 5 to 10 year intervals since 1946. The recent Global Forest Resources Assessments have been produced every five years in an attempt to provide a consistent approach to describing the world’s forests and how they are changing (FAO, 2020a). Deforestation includes the permanent reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold. It also includes areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs, mining and urban areas. The term specifically excludes areas where the trees have been removed as a result of harvesting or logging, and where the forest is expected to regenerate naturally or with the aid of silvicultural measures. The term also includes areas where, for example, the impact of disturbance, over-utilisation or changing environmental conditions affects the forest to an extent that it cannot sustain a canopy cover above the 10% threshold (FAO, 2020b). Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates and contribute significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades (FAO, 2020a). Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990 (FAO, 2020a). Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest degradation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40% of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33% (FAO and UNEP, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb92ecc5-c1af-40af-840a-207e05747bf0","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest"},"definition":{"en":"A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions of the term forest are in use throughout the world, reflecting wide differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure and economics. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest in the context of National GHG inventories, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC 2006, 2019; UNFCCC, 2021a, b).]"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3eb866d1-69a8-4a85-9e1f-5b8fdcc6ffc9","prefLabel":{"en":"Afforestation"},"definition":{"en":"Conversion to forest of land that historically has not contained forests. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC 2006, 2019; UNFCCC 2021a, b).]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b6a353d3-37cc-4c46-b144-0995fc4864e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Deforestation"},"altLabel":{"en":["None"]},"definition":{"en":"Deforestation is the conversion of forest to other land use independently of whether human-induced or not (FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Terms and Definitions FRA 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper No. 188. Accessed 19 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has monitored the world’s forests at 5 to 10 year intervals since 1946. The recent Global Forest Resources Assessments have been produced every five years in an attempt to provide a consistent approach to describing the world’s forests and how they are changing (FAO, 2020a). Deforestation includes the permanent reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10% threshold. It also includes areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs, mining and urban areas. The term specifically excludes areas where the trees have been removed as a result of harvesting or logging, and where the forest is expected to regenerate naturally or with the aid of silvicultural measures. The term also includes areas where, for example, the impact of disturbance, over-utilisation or changing environmental conditions affects the forest to an extent that it cannot sustain a canopy cover above the 10% threshold (FAO, 2020b). Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates and contribute significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades (FAO, 2020a). Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990 (FAO, 2020a). Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest degradation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40% of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33% (FAO and UNEP, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1e82b983-8590-486c-96ca-335c3f4b231a","prefLabel":{"en":"Reforestation"},"definition":{"en":"Conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but that has been converted to some other use.[Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC, 2006, 2019; UNFCCC 2021a, b).]"}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d9f2d77-46ea-4ccb-93a6-1bfae4437781","prefLabel":{"en":"Redundancy"},"definition":{"en":"Alternative or back-up means created within an infrastructure system to accommodate disruption, extreme pressures, or surges in demand. It includes diversity, i.e., the presence of multiple ways to achieve a given need or fulfil a particular function (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Redundancy increases reliability."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/dcc21d6f-baae-4256-8cc3-3a6ee27e5608","prefLabel":{"en":"Reflexivity"},"altLabel":{"en":["reflexive"]},"definition":{"en":"Reflexivity involves questioning one's own taken for granted assumptions (Westling et al., 2019)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["When applied to research, ‘reflexivity’ can be described as ‘examining how the researcher and inter-subjective elements impinge on, and even transform, research’ (Finlay, 2002, p.210)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1f1836d6-8bfc-4e95-90d7-a8914f50a190","prefLabel":{"en":"Region"},"definition":{"en":"Land and/or ocean area characterised by specific geographical and/or climatological features. The climate of a region emerges from a multi-scale combination of its own features, remote influences from other regions, and global climate conditions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e8c9d31b-844d-42fb-917e-62cec83ddbc6","prefLabel":{"en":"Regional climate messages"},"definition":{"en":"Regional climate messages translate climate information synthesized from different lines of evidence into the context of a user vulnerable to climate at regional scales taking into account the values of both the producer and user (Section 10.5 of the AR6 WGI report)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4465f9c2-baa9-41b4-9dde-d0a2a0651d91","prefLabel":{"en":"Reliability"},"altLabel":{"en":["reliability"]},"definition":{"en":"Ability of an infrastructure asset or system to perform the desired function based on specified requirements (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ec056647-4d76-44e8-963e-1715b375d64a","prefLabel":{"en":"Research impact"},"altLabel":{"en":["research impact"]},"definition":{"en":"The demonstrable contribution that research makes to society and the economy, and its benefits to individuals, organisations, or nations (adapted from ESRC, n.d. in Gill et al., 2022). The impact of research can include instrumental impact (i.e. influencing the development of policy, practice, or services, sharing legislation and changing behaviour); conceptual impact (i.e. contributing to the understanding of policy issues and reframing debates); and capacity building through technical and personal skill development (ESRC, 2026).\n\nSource: Gill et al., 2022. Accessed 18 February 2026.
\n\nSource: ESRC, 2026. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Academic impact can be defined as the contribution of research to academia, across and within disciplines, including advances in understanding, methods, theory, and application. Whereas economic and societal impacts are contributions of research to economy and society, encompassing the diverse ways in which research can benefit individuals, organisations, and nations (NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC,2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e0295ade-17a4-4df6-9d1d-a61e91e1a0fe","prefLabel":{"en":"Resilience pathways"},"altLabel":{"en":["Resilient pathways"]},"definition":{"en":"Resilience pathways include strategies and actions for reducing, managing and recovering from impacts of disasters. With reference to infrastructure development, resilience pathways refer to perspectives, strategies and actions that help infrastructure systems to withstand and recover from disasters in a timely and efficient manner with minimal impact on essential basic structures and functions (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Climate resilient development pathways (CRDPs) are trajectories that strengthen sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty and reduce inequalities while promoting fair and cross-scalar adaptation and resilience to a changing climate. They raise the ethics, equity and feasibility aspects of the deep societal transformation needed to drastically reduce emissions to limit global warming (e.g., to well below 2°C) and achieve desirable and livable futures and well-being for all."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/32be1adf-48fc-4b01-8ded-518f5c093810","prefLabel":{"en":"Resilience plan"},"altLabel":{"en":["Resilience planning","Resilience plans"]},"definition":{"en":"A resilience plan involves developing goals and coordinating or integrating policies, programmes and actions taken across infrastructure sectors and diverse stakeholder groups to reduce risks, and to enable communities to adapt and thrive when faced with challenges related to natural and human-caused hazards (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Infrastructure sectors include transportation, energy, housing and built environment, telecommunications, water and waste, etc. Stakeholder groups include political and economic entities and interests.\n\nPlanning for resilience empowers diverse stakeholders to evaluate plans, set strategic policies, and implement projects. This may need to include capacity development provisions."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/25b337e4-3277-4a3e-87c9-0a8f6a657939","prefLabel":{"en":"Resource cascade"},"definition":{"en":"Tracking resource use (materials, energy, water, etc.), efficiency and losses through all conversion steps from primary resource extraction to various conversion steps, all the way to final service delivery."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9663f0b6-b329-4144-a0ed-d482a846b832","prefLabel":{"en":"Resourcefulness"},"definition":{"en":"The ability of stakeholders in an infrastructure system to mobilize the required human, material and financial resources necessary to prepare for, mitigate against, respond to and recover from shocks and stresses particularly under resource constraints (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Resourcefulness includes measures taken before a crisis to prepare the infrastructure system and its managers including agreements for mobilization of surge capacities.\n\nResourcefulness helps the system to swiftly move from a response to the recovery phase."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aace5bc6-cb35-4a2c-b7e1-516d3110e0b6","prefLabel":{"en":"Response time or adjustment time"},"definition":{"en":"In the context of climate variations, the response time or adjustment time is the time needed for the climate system or its components to re-equilibrate to a new state, following a forcing resulting from external processes. It is very different for various components of the climate system. The response time of the troposphere is relatively short, from days to weeks, whereas the stratosphere reaches equilibrium on a time scale of typically a few months. Due to their large heat capacity, the oceans have a much longer response time: typically decades, but up to centuries or millennia. The response time of the strongly coupled surface–troposphere system is, therefore, slow compared to that of the stratosphere, and mainly determined by the oceans. The biosphere may respond quickly (e.g., to droughts), but also very slowly to imposed changes. \n\nIn the context of lifetimes, response time or adjustment time (Ta) is the time scale characterizing the decay of an instantaneous pulse input into the reservoir. See Response time or adjustment time (Ta) under Lifetime."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/98d631e4-42ee-43f6-8fc2-7c07a26edb3c","prefLabel":{"en":"Retrofitting"},"altLabel":{"en":["Hardening"]},"definition":{"en":"Reinforcement or upgrading of existing physical structures to become more resistant and resilient to the damaging effects of hazards (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Reinforcement or upgrading of existing physical structures to become more resistant and resilient to the damaging effects of hazards.\n\nRetrofitting requires consideration of the design and function of the structure, the stresses that the structure may be subject to from hazards or hazard scenarios and the practicality and costs of different retrofitting options.\n\nExamples of retrofitting include adding bracing to stiffen walls, reinforcing pillars, adding steel ties between walls and roofs, installing shutters on windows and improving the protection of important facilities and equipment. See also \"Corrective disaster risk management\"."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bf9de227-93a8-49c6-ba0c-89807d78751b","prefLabel":{"en":"Rift Valley Fever (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Infectious enzootic hepatitis of sheep and cattle"]},"definition":{"en":"Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an acute haemorrhagic viral disease, affecting small and large ruminants and camels. RVF virus is a member of the Phlebovirus genus. The disease causes high mortality especially in new borne and mass abortions in pregnant animals. Humans become infected from contact with tissues/blood of infected animals including abortive material and through mosquito bites. Disease in humans presents as influenza like illness, haemorrhagic fever, encephalitis and occasionally death (adapted from FAO, 2003; WHO, 2018; OIE 2020).FAO, 2003. Recognizing Rift Valley fever. Animal Health Manual No. 17. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 4 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a viral zoonosis that primarily affects animals but also has the capacity to infect humans. Infection can cause severe disease in both animals and humans (WHO, 2018). RVF is an economically important disease, and affects different species of animals and humans. Immunisation and vector control are the main strategies to reduce the incidence of RVF. It is considered an occupational disease of livestock handlers, dairy farmers, abattoir workers and veterinarians. The direct socio-economic impact of RVF is on livestock producers due to high levels of mortality and morbidity in animals (WHO, 2018). RVF virus is a member of the Phlebovirus genus. The virus was first identified in 1931 during an investigation into an epidemic among sheep on a farm in the Rift Valley of Kenya (WHO, 2018). Since then, outbreaks have been reported in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1977 an explosive outbreak was reported in Egypt, the RVF virus was introduced to Egypt via infected livestock trade along the Nile irrigation system. In 1997–1998, a major outbreak occurred in Kenya, Somalia and Tanzania following an El Niño event and extensive flooding. After infected livestock trade from the horn of Africa, RVF spread in September 2000 to Saudi Arabia and Yemen, marking the first reported occurrence of the disease outside the African continent and raising concerns that it could extend to other parts of Asia and Europe (WHO, 2018). RVF is a disease of caused by RVF virus (RVFV), an arbovirus, transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. RVF epidemic/epizootic has been associated with periods of flooding following heavy rainfall especially after a long drought. These floods create pools of water conducive for hatching/emergence of Aedes mosquitoes, which may be infected with the RVFV and can transmit the virus to ruminants or camels when they drink from or feed close to the water pools (FAO, 2003). Outbreaks of RVF in animals can be prevented by a sustained programme of animal vaccination. Commercially available veterinary RVF vaccines are important for preventing the spread of RVFV in endemic countries. Three live-attenuated RVF vaccines are available for veterinary use in endemic areas. However, these vaccines have adverse effects in pregnant ewes, resulting in abortion or malformation. On the other hand, three different inactivated RVF vaccines that induce short-term immunity are also available in endemic regions (FAO, 2003). Rift Valley fever outbreaks in domesticated animals are often accompanied by human disease. The majority of human infections result from contact with the blood or organs of infected animals. Human infections have also resulted from the bites of infected mosquitoes. To date, no human-to-human transmission of RVF virus has been documented (WHO, 2018). The most common form of the disease in humans is a self-limiting, flu-like illness. Complications in a minority of cases include ocular disease, neurological signs, kidney dysfunction and a life-threatening haemorrhagic syndrome with hepatic dysfunction. Although overall case fatality rates are thought to be low (≤2%), there may be a very large number of cases during some epidemics, resulting in hundreds of serious cases and significant numbers of deaths (Spickler, 2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/28b7c1f7-ae68-4e4a-81f1-6e66bf04fd12","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk"},"definition":{"en":"The potential for adverse consequences for human or ecological systems, recognising the diversity of values and objectives associated with such systems. In the context of climate change, risks can arise from potential impacts of climate change as well as human responses to climate change. Relevant adverse consequences include those on lives, livelihoods, health and well-being, economic, social and cultural assets and investments, infrastructure, services (including ecosystem services), ecosystems and species.In the context of climate change impacts, risks result from dynamic interactions between climate-related hazards with the exposure and vulnerability of the affected human or ecological system to the hazards. Hazards, exposure and vulnerability may each be subject to uncertainty in terms of magnitude and likelihood of occurrence, and each may change over time and space due to socio-economic changes and human decision-making (see also risk management, adaptation and mitigation). In the context of climate change responses, risks result from the potential for such responses not achieving the intended objective(s), or from potential trade-offs with, or negative side-effects on, other societal objectives, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (see also risk trade-off). Risks can arise, for example, from uncertainty in implementation, effectiveness or outcomes of climate policy, climate-related investments, technology development or adoption, and system transitions (IPCC AR6)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ad0f0538-f168-4c67-afce-dc9598155cde","prefLabel":{"en":"Cascading impacts"},"definition":{"en":"Cascading impacts from extreme weather/climate events occur when an extreme hazard generates a sequence of secondary events in natural and human systems that result in physical, natural, social or economic disruption, whereby the resulting impact is significantly larger than the initial impact. Cascading impacts are complex and multi-dimensional, and are associated more with the magnitude of vulnerability than with that of the hazard (modified from Pescaroli and Alexander, 2015) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Cascading impacts occur when impacts in one or more parts of an interconnected system may trigger impacts in other parts of the system. For example, a flood can cause direct damages to buildings, but also have knock-on effects on people’s mental health, on business continuity and on supply chains (CCRA3 Technical Team, 2021)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f0914a46-c1d4-445d-b5fc-cf24218fb4fe","prefLabel":{"en":"Diminishing cascade"},"definition":{"en":"The inverse of the escalating cascade, where each subsequent impact propagated in a cascade is dampened or reduced compared to the previous one. Using a similar supply chain example, fixed prices may be built-in to contracts between retailers and suppliers, hence safeguarding prices for recipient consumers but also implying that suppliers would absorb any additional costs (potentially exposing them to increased impacts) (Carter et al., 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/59a9d753-5ce4-489e-addb-715319eed174","prefLabel":{"en":"Escalating cascade"},"definition":{"en":"Characterises cases in which impacts are being transmitted in a cascade from one system component to another, with each subsequent impact amplified compared to the previous one. For instance, this kind of situation can sometimes arise in supply chains following a climate-induced shortfall in a commodity, a rise in price that subsequently provokes an over-reaction such as panic buying, stockpiling or market intervention that drives up the price of the commodity even further than the original situation might have merited (Carter et al., 2021)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/486d1357-c138-4fe0-969b-f5668731ca93","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate risk"},"altLabel":{"en":["climate risks","climatic risks"]},"definition":{"en":"Climate risks are the possible outcomes or consequences of climate-related hazards and change and/or adaptation responses (Adaptation Without Borders, 2021)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/20bc2699-76a7-488b-99a1-9dafec796cea","prefLabel":{"en":"Borderless climate risks"},"altLabel":{"en":["Borderless climate risk","Cross-border climate risk","Teleconnected climate risk","Transboundary climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Any climate risk that crosses national borders in its transmission, whether in a transboundary or teleconnected way. This term does not include systemic risk with cascading effects between sectors that stay within national borders (Benzie and Persson, 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5c694257-42f2-48b6-b03c-922f8ad64133","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate risk transfer"},"altLabel":{"en":["adaptation climate risk"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0ae68762-fb7d-47e2-a0c8-3ff0ef9d8155","prefLabel":{"en":"Indirect risk"},"definition":{"en":"Indirect risk arises when the effects of\ndisasters have an impact on a broader\nrange of elements within a system,\nincluding those outside the directly \naffected area, via links and connections\nwithin the system (Arrighi et al., 2021).\nAs a result, loss levels grow higher with\nincreasing interconnectivity, particularly \ndue to international trade and growing\ncomplexity of supply chains (Hochrainer\n-Stigler and Reiter, 2021)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Indirect risks, similarly to cascading risks, invoke differences between first-order climate risks (e.g., direct climate risks, often contained within national borders) and higher-order risks (e.g., risks which are triggered elsewhere and may flow across sectors or borders). Risks conceptualised in this way may be plausibly contained within a national border, but across sectors, as the key characteristic is the hierarchical ordering of a risk, rather than the distance it flows.\n\nYet, while indirect risk is a broader concept and describes the general consequences of a particular event, cascading risk refers to a situation in which the initial impact triggers a further sequence of events, often across multiple systems and places. Thus, cascading risk is a particular type of indirect risk, characterised specifically by a chain reaction of repercussions (Arrighi et al., 2021)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1263d9b4-76ce-4d59-82a7-94ef797b4b8f","prefLabel":{"en":"Cascading climate risk"},"definition":{"en":"Cascading climate risk arises from a possibility of the initial climate impact triggering a further sequence of events, often across multiple systems and locations. This makes cascading risk a particular type of indirect risk, characterised specifically by a chain reaction of repercussions (Arrighi et al., 2021)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Cascading climate risks, being a subset of indirect risks, invoke differences between first-order climate risks (e.g., direct climate risks, often contained within national borders) and higher-order risks (e.g., risks which are triggered elsewhere and may flow across sectors or borders). Risks conceptualised in this way may be plausibly contained within a national border, but across sectors, as the key characteristic is the hierarchical ordering of a risk, rather than the distance it flows (Bednar-Friedl et al., 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a03b4e4-0c98-4e6d-b360-da0c58ee1f3d","prefLabel":{"en":"Cascade tiers"},"definition":{"en":"Describes a situation in which the propagation of an initial impact is transmitted through a cascade of impacts on system components. Impacts at each tier of the cascade are themselves associated with a recipient risk of concern, the extent of which may be influenced by other features of the transmission dynamics. For example, businesses handling materials at different ‘stages’ of a complex supply chain (e.g., export, processing, retail), with disruptions at each stage having knock-on consequences e.g., for profitability for each recipient group (Carter et al., 2021)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5a02c7e5-d036-4ba0-9a00-6ee891f9fde5","prefLabel":{"en":"Feedback cascade"},"definition":{"en":"Cases in which impacts propagating from one system component to another may actually feed back to earlier links of the cascade, hence adding complexity to the impact transmission and its influence on the recipient risk. For example, perishable food products affected by weather at a source location may suffer quality losses during transportation to manufacturing plants, resulting in requests for additional high quality produce from suppliers at points earlier in the supply chain (Carter et al., 2021)."}}]}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5eaac414-08ae-4ac9-a135-4caa913addc2","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic climate risks"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Systemic climate risks can be referred to as the possibility of interaction effects and feedback loops between risks and systems, rather than a hierarchical structure as cascading risks might suggest (Gaupp et al., 2020; Puma et al., 2015; Bednar-Friedl et al., 2022)"},"scopeNote":{"en":["While the term “cascading” is more frequently used in the industry context, the term “systemic” is more frequent in the agriculture context."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a70d9c65-2663-4d55-a53d-76f3610b6b0d","prefLabel":{"en":"Transboundary climate risk"},"altLabel":{"en":["Cross-border climate risk","Teleconnected climate risk","Cascading climate risk","International climate risk","Telecoupling climate risk","Transnational climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Transboundary climate risks are climate risks that cross national borders. They comprise two sets of risk associated with:\n• The transboundary impacts of climate change.\n• The transboundary effects of adaptation – positive or negative – made by one or more countries that have repercussions for others. (AWB - transboundary climate risks: an overview) (Adaptation Without Borders, 2021).\n\nTransboundary risks are the products of borders and geography. Risks are transmitted from one region to another through flows between countries and systematic environmental processes such as downwind movement of air pollution, flows of water and fluctuating resources such as fisheries. These can result both from the effects of climate change dirctly, as well as adaptation or non-adaptation responses. The mechanisms of transmission of risk also have multiple direct and indirect pathways and cascade through complex socioeconomic–ecological systems (Challinor and Benton, 2017; Hedlund et al., 2018)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In many instances, literature on transboundary climate risks describes cases where actors share a physical border, including transboundary river basins (Manteaw, 2020; Margulis et al., 2010). Increasingly, however, authors have also begun to broaden the use of this phrase, referring also to climate risks across noncontiguous borders such as those transmitted through trade and supply chains (e.g., Benzie et al., 2019; Challinor et al., 2017; Koks et al., 2019).\n\nThe term \"transboundary\" is sometimes used interchangeably with \"transnational\". While “transboundary” implies a specific focus on the crossing of a border, “transnational” more clearly references the role of the nation state and often invokes the political scientific roots of the term to mean including at least one non-state actor (Risse-Kappen, 1995). Benzie et al. (2017) identified the same dichotomy and conducted a survey of adaptation experts, where respondents were asked how confusing or meaningful various terms were. Survey results suggested that the term “transboundary” was less confusing than “transnational,” but also potentially less accurate.\n\nEfforts to speak a common language on transboundary climate change risks have been hampered by the sheer diversity of terms in use (‘transnational’, ‘transboundary’, ‘telecoupling’, ‘teleconnected’, ‘cross-border’, ‘cascading’, ‘indirect’, ‘systemic’, ‘international’ to name a few) and the lack of an emerging lexicon that could be considered dominant (Benzie et al. 2016). But assessments have taken place of each terms’ relative merit vis-à-vis respective audiences and proposed definitions of ‘transboundary adaptation’ have enhanced conceptual clarity of the possible response mechanisms (Benzie et al. 2016, Nadin and Roberts 2018). \n\nAt least three distinct approaches to conceptualizing transboundary climate risks can be identified: (i) by the nature of the risk, such as the two categories proposed by the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures and adopted, for example, by Wei and Chase (2018); (ii) by the mode of transmission, such as the seven categories put forward by Carter et al. (2021), four mechanisms outlined by Challinor et al. (2018), four pathways conceptualized by Benzie et al. (2016), six classifications presented by Hilden et al. (2016) ´ , and eight teleconnections proposed by Moser and Hart (2015); and (iii) by what one might term the “public policy impact domain,” such as PwC’s\n(2013) five themes."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c927a4b6-3ca5-4200-8d76-5f680ed14416","prefLabel":{"en":"Compound risks"},"definition":{"en":"Arise from the interaction of hazards, which may be characterised by single extreme events or multiple coincident or sequential events that interact with exposed systems or sectors."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1e74d3e6-59f6-4f42-8d30-08a74952d3b8","prefLabel":{"en":"Compound weather/climate events"},"definition":{"en":"The terms ‘compound events’, ‘compound extremes’ and ‘compound extreme events’ are used interchangeably in the literature and this report and refer to the combination of multiple drivers and/or hazards that contributes to societal and/or environmental risk (Zscheischler et al., 2018; IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/99596d76-6804-426b-b6fd-cbda6c842031","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster risk"},"definition":{"en":"The likelihood over a specified time period of severe alterations in the normal functioning of a community or a society due to hazardous physical events interacting with vulnerable social conditions, leading to widespread adverse human, material, economic, or environmental effects that require immediate emergency response to satisfy critical human needs and that may require external support for recovery (IPCC AR6, 2023).\n\nThe potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a system, society, or a community in a specific period of time, determined probabilistically as a function of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The definition of disaster risk reflects the concept of hazardous events and disasters as the outcome of already present or projected physical, vulnerability and exposure conditions. Disaster risk comprises different types of potential losses which are often difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, with knowledge of the prevailing hazards and the patterns of population and socio-economic development, disaster risks can be assessed and mapped, at least in broad terms. It is important to consider the social and economic contexts in which disaster risks occur and that people do not necessarily share the same perceptions or assign the same significance to risk and the underlying risk factors.\n\nWith regard to infrastructure, disaster risk related to infrastructure systems that serve communities or businesses located in hazard-prone zones, or where infrastructure serving different (not necessarily hazard-prone) areas passes through hazard-prone zones."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3ecbfa34-a993-44ec-beb1-6cff12d8761a","prefLabel":{"en":"Extensive disaster risk"},"definition":{"en":"The risk of low-severity, high-frequency hazardous events and disasters, mainly but not exclusively associated with highly localized hazards (UNDRR, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Extensive disaster risk is usually high in cases where communities are exposed to, and vulnerable to, recurring localized floods, landslides, storms or drought. Extensive disaster risk is often exacerbated by poverty, rapid urbanization and environmental degradation. \n\nWhen dealing with infrastructure loss and damage, extensive disaster relates to small-scale, local infrastructure systems, rather than large-scale infrastructure."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/60ac367b-a500-4fab-bf70-3445b676bb6e","prefLabel":{"en":"Intensive disaster risk"},"definition":{"en":"The risk of high-severity, mid- to low-frequency disasters, mainly associated with major hazards (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Intensive disaster risk relates to large-scale infrastructure systems (complex infrastructure) which affect densely populated urban and rural areas and regions of systemic economic importance, as distinct from small-scale local infrastructure systems.\n\nIntensive disaster risk is mainly a characteristic of large cities or densely populated areas that are not only exposed to intense hazards such as strong earthquakes, active volcanoes, heavy floods, tsunamis or major storms but also have high levels of vulnerability to these hazards."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7a1449f4-354a-4384-b187-c2685401d3d5","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster risk drivers"},"definition":{"en":"Processes or conditions, related to the workings of a particular development model or practice, that influence the level of disaster risk by creating or increasing hazard, exposure and vulnerability or reducing capacity. Disaster risk drivers — also referred to as underlying disaster risk factors — include poverty and inequality, climate change and variability, unplanned and rapid urbanization, and the lack of disaster risk considerations in land, environmental and natural resource management, as well as compounding factors such as demographic change, non-disaster risk-informed policies, the inadequacies of regulations and incentives for private disaster risk reduction investment, complex supply chains, the limited availability of technology, unsustainable uses of natural resources, declining ecosystems, pandemics and epidemics (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster risk may result from one or more of the drivers mentioned above."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e9720c89-a11f-4f3c-b94b-5c2b7d1f40d5","prefLabel":{"en":"Elements at risk"},"definition":{"en":"All objects, persons, animals, plants, activities and processes that may be adversely affected by hazardous phenomena, in a particular area, either directly or indirectly. This includes buildings, infrastructure, production facilities, population, livestock, economic activities, public services, environment and cultural heritage, among others (ACP-EU Natural Disaster Risk Reduction Programme)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2aa0dd43-3fb2-41f2-a6f0-808e2305bec9","prefLabel":{"en":"Emergent risks"},"altLabel":{"en":["emergent risk"]},"definition":{"en":"A risk that arises from the interaction of phenomena in a complex system, for example, the risk caused when geographic shifts in human population in response to climate change lead to increased vulnerability and exposure of populations in the receiving region (IPCC AR5, 2014)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["For example, risk caused when geographic shifts in human population in response to climate change lead to increased vulnerability and exposure of populations in the receiving region (Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/984d331d-d820-49c7-9f48-f147927eec92","prefLabel":{"en":"Everyday risk"},"altLabel":{"en":["Chronic stresses","Quotidian risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Day-to-day conditions that severely impede the achievement of a healthy and productive life by different sections of a society or a community. These include conditions such as lack of access to basic services and infrastructure, livelihood opportunities and overall well-being (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Significant levels of disaster risk tend to become concentrated in specific social groups that are vulnerable, excluded and marginalised, lacking resources and support in their territories. \n\nSuch risk is seen as a precursor to extensive and intensive disaster risk and disaster.\""]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ce4e88e1-769e-4c28-a843-21c3a6ecbd50","prefLabel":{"en":"Exposure"},"definition":{"en":"The presence of people; livelihoods; species or ecosystems; environmental functions, services, and resources; infrastructure; or economic, social, or cultural assets in places and settings that could be adversely affected (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the context of disasters, exposure can refer to the situation of people, infrastructure, housing, production capacities and other tangible human assets located in hazard-prone areas (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3ecbfa34-a993-44ec-beb1-6cff12d8761a","prefLabel":{"en":"Extensive disaster risk"},"definition":{"en":"The risk of low-severity, high-frequency hazardous events and disasters, mainly but not exclusively associated with highly localized hazards (UNDRR, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Extensive disaster risk is usually high in cases where communities are exposed to, and vulnerable to, recurring localized floods, landslides, storms or drought. Extensive disaster risk is often exacerbated by poverty, rapid urbanization and environmental degradation. \n\nWhen dealing with infrastructure loss and damage, extensive disaster relates to small-scale, local infrastructure systems, rather than large-scale infrastructure."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5b58c0e2-49fe-4a7e-9754-aa60a348cbd5","prefLabel":{"en":"Hazard forecast"},"altLabel":{"en":["hazard prediction"]},"definition":{"en":"Hazard forecasts provide information on the physical event characteristics, such as the location, timing, and magnitude of a potentially damaging event (Merz et al., 2020 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0ae68762-fb7d-47e2-a0c8-3ff0ef9d8155","prefLabel":{"en":"Indirect risk"},"definition":{"en":"Indirect risk arises when the effects of\ndisasters have an impact on a broader\nrange of elements within a system,\nincluding those outside the directly \naffected area, via links and connections\nwithin the system (Arrighi et al., 2021).\nAs a result, loss levels grow higher with\nincreasing interconnectivity, particularly \ndue to international trade and growing\ncomplexity of supply chains (Hochrainer\n-Stigler and Reiter, 2021)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Indirect risks, similarly to cascading risks, invoke differences between first-order climate risks (e.g., direct climate risks, often contained within national borders) and higher-order risks (e.g., risks which are triggered elsewhere and may flow across sectors or borders). Risks conceptualised in this way may be plausibly contained within a national border, but across sectors, as the key characteristic is the hierarchical ordering of a risk, rather than the distance it flows.\n\nYet, while indirect risk is a broader concept and describes the general consequences of a particular event, cascading risk refers to a situation in which the initial impact triggers a further sequence of events, often across multiple systems and places. Thus, cascading risk is a particular type of indirect risk, characterised specifically by a chain reaction of repercussions (Arrighi et al., 2021)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1263d9b4-76ce-4d59-82a7-94ef797b4b8f","prefLabel":{"en":"Cascading climate risk"},"definition":{"en":"Cascading climate risk arises from a possibility of the initial climate impact triggering a further sequence of events, often across multiple systems and locations. This makes cascading risk a particular type of indirect risk, characterised specifically by a chain reaction of repercussions (Arrighi et al., 2021)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Cascading climate risks, being a subset of indirect risks, invoke differences between first-order climate risks (e.g., direct climate risks, often contained within national borders) and higher-order risks (e.g., risks which are triggered elsewhere and may flow across sectors or borders). Risks conceptualised in this way may be plausibly contained within a national border, but across sectors, as the key characteristic is the hierarchical ordering of a risk, rather than the distance it flows (Bednar-Friedl et al., 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a03b4e4-0c98-4e6d-b360-da0c58ee1f3d","prefLabel":{"en":"Cascade tiers"},"definition":{"en":"Describes a situation in which the propagation of an initial impact is transmitted through a cascade of impacts on system components. Impacts at each tier of the cascade are themselves associated with a recipient risk of concern, the extent of which may be influenced by other features of the transmission dynamics. For example, businesses handling materials at different ‘stages’ of a complex supply chain (e.g., export, processing, retail), with disruptions at each stage having knock-on consequences e.g., for profitability for each recipient group (Carter et al., 2021)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5a02c7e5-d036-4ba0-9a00-6ee891f9fde5","prefLabel":{"en":"Feedback cascade"},"definition":{"en":"Cases in which impacts propagating from one system component to another may actually feed back to earlier links of the cascade, hence adding complexity to the impact transmission and its influence on the recipient risk. For example, perishable food products affected by weather at a source location may suffer quality losses during transportation to manufacturing plants, resulting in requests for additional high quality produce from suppliers at points earlier in the supply chain (Carter et al., 2021)."}}]}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/60ac367b-a500-4fab-bf70-3445b676bb6e","prefLabel":{"en":"Intensive disaster risk"},"definition":{"en":"The risk of high-severity, mid- to low-frequency disasters, mainly associated with major hazards (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Intensive disaster risk relates to large-scale infrastructure systems (complex infrastructure) which affect densely populated urban and rural areas and regions of systemic economic importance, as distinct from small-scale local infrastructure systems.\n\nIntensive disaster risk is mainly a characteristic of large cities or densely populated areas that are not only exposed to intense hazards such as strong earthquakes, active volcanoes, heavy floods, tsunamis or major storms but also have high levels of vulnerability to these hazards."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/66bfff2d-adca-49ae-ba0a-d47b0821cdbe","prefLabel":{"en":"Key risk"},"definition":{"en":"Key risks have potentially severe adverse consequences for humans and social-ecological systems resulting from the interaction of climate related hazards with vulnerabilities of societies and systems exposed."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/21b6b68c-01a4-48d3-bded-2e81725271cd","prefLabel":{"en":"Likelihood"},"definition":{"en":"The chance of a specific outcome occurring, where this might be estimated probabilistically. Likelihood is expressed in this report using a standard terminology (Mastrandrea et al., 2010). "}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/048d5918-d295-464b-b232-e592717eae54","prefLabel":{"en":"Low-likelihood, high impact outcomes"},"altLabel":{"en":["Climate tail risks","black swan event"]},"definition":{"en":"Outcomes/events whose probability of occurrence is low or not well known (as in the context of deep uncertainty) but whose potential impacts on society and ecosystems could be high. To better inform risk assessment and decision-making, such low-likelihood outcomes are considered if they are associated with very large consequences and may therefore constitute material risks, even though those consequences do not necessarily represent the most likely outcome."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4c527abb-c0bd-43aa-a609-890244b6a1eb","prefLabel":{"en":"Multi-hazard"},"altLabel":{"en":["multi-hazard events"]},"definition":{"en":"Multi-hazard refers to specific contexts where hazardous events may occur singly, simultaneously, cascadingly, or cumulatively over time, taking into account the potential interrelated effects."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e019e9c-7b28-493a-b8aa-3c73207919b4","prefLabel":{"en":"Multi-hazard risk"},"definition":{"en":"Risk generated from multiple hazards and the interrelationships between these hazards (but not considering interrelationships on the vulnerability level) (Zschau, 2017 in Gill et al., 2022)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4e019e9c-7b28-493a-b8aa-3c73207919b4","prefLabel":{"en":"Multi-hazard risk"},"definition":{"en":"Risk generated from multiple hazards and the interrelationships between these hazards (but not considering interrelationships on the vulnerability level) (Zschau, 2017 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9dc8a648-ddfd-468a-b1bc-0402e1de3365","prefLabel":{"en":"Predictability"},"definition":{"en":"The extent to which future states of a system may be predicted based on knowledge of current and past states of the system. Because knowledge of the climate system’s past and current states is generally imperfect, as are the models that utilize this knowledge to produce a climate prediction, and because the climate system is inherently non-linear and chaotic, predictability of the climate system is inherently limited. Even with arbitrarily accurate models and observations, there may still be limits to the predictability of such a non-linear system (AMS, 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f5deb21e-a2cb-4262-a195-4dcb97e40abb","prefLabel":{"en":"Reasons for Concern (RFCs)"},"definition":{"en":"Elements of a classification framework, first developed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report, which aims to facilitate judgements about what level of climate change may be dangerous (in the language of Article 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) by aggregating risks from various sectors, considering hazards, exposures, vulnerabilities, capacities to adapt, and the resulting impacts."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a3ea8f77-a9bf-4fe1-89e5-51a542143dd0","prefLabel":{"en":"Representative Key Risks (RKRs)"},"definition":{"en":"Representative, thematic clusters of key risks."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/82d27d0e-e86e-414e-b98b-f3e6d610d9c4","prefLabel":{"en":"Residual risk"},"definition":{"en":"The risk related to climate change impacts that remains following adaptation and mitigation efforts. Adaptation actions can redistribute risk and impacts, with increased risk and impacts in some areas or populations, and decreased risk and impacts in others (IPCC AR6, 2023).\n\nThe disaster risk that remains in unmanaged form, even when effective disaster risk reduction measures are in place, and for which emergency response and recovery capacities must be maintained (UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c92e01c6-d47e-4403-8d0f-7ae26c20f31e","prefLabel":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management"},"definition":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management activities address and seek to avoid the development of new or increased disaster risks. They focus on addressing disaster risks that may develop in future if disaster risk reduction policies are not put in place (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Examples include well-designed and built resilient infrastructure, ensuring robustness of assets, planning for flexibility, safe failure, and redundancy in service provision. Feedback loops are critical for this purpose. See also “Feedback Loops”. In the context of resilient infrastructure, they focus on reducing risk."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8340440a-1ecc-4de8-93a6-4a700478bd58","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk assessment"},"definition":{"en":"The qualitative and/or quantitative scientific estimation of risks."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/af6a8944-0ebd-4faa-82f5-e5ecc74d29a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline/reference"},"altLabel":{"en":["baseline","reference"]},"definition":{"en":"The baseline (or reference) is the state against which change is measured. A baseline period is the period relative to which anomalies are computed. The baseline concentration of a trace gas is that measured at a location not influenced by local anthropogenic emissions."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c0c36957-d8b4-4877-9a56-8c67cb800fca","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk framework"},"definition":{"en":"A common framework for describing and assessing risk across all three [IPCC] Working Groups is adopted to promote clear and consistent communication of risks and to better inform risk assessment and decision-making related to climate change (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/297f5db2-5143-462a-b7e9-6995552812eb","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk management"},"definition":{"en":"Plans, actions, strategies or policies to reduce the likelihood and/or magnitude of adverse potential consequences, based on assessed or perceived risks."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2d6e1aaa-6307-463b-9cbe-bc7042c8b12d","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptive management"},"definition":{"en":"A process of iteratively planning, implementing and modifying strategies for managing resources in the face of uncertainty and change. Adaptive management involves adjusting approaches in response to observations of their effect on, and changes in, the system brought on by resulting feedback effects and other variables (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c92e01c6-d47e-4403-8d0f-7ae26c20f31e","prefLabel":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management"},"definition":{"en":"Prospective disaster risk management activities address and seek to avoid the development of new or increased disaster risks. They focus on addressing disaster risks that may develop in future if disaster risk reduction policies are not put in place (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Examples include well-designed and built resilient infrastructure, ensuring robustness of assets, planning for flexibility, safe failure, and redundancy in service provision. Feedback loops are critical for this purpose. See also “Feedback Loops”. In the context of resilient infrastructure, they focus on reducing risk."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aa841ade-defb-4e6d-b780-2beb1c981e54","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk perception"},"definition":{"en":"The subjective judgement that people make about the characteristics and severity of a risk (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/53aa0e30-b617-406a-86e2-261241458d37","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk trade-off"},"definition":{"en":"The change in the portfolio of risks that occurs when a countervailing risk is generated (knowingly or inadvertently) by an intervention to reduce the target risk (Wiener and Graham, 2009)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d2a7fbf1-00a0-40fb-b77a-7e4235e79067","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk transfer"},"definition":{"en":"The process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of particular risks from one party to another whereby a household, community, enterprise or state authority will obtain resources from the other party after a disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or compensatory social or financial benefits provided to that other party."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/294a6e6f-64a6-40ee-bcbc-97de03f86754","prefLabel":{"en":"Sensitivity"},"definition":{"en":"The degree to which a system or species is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate variability or change. The effect may be direct (e.g., a change in crop yield in response to a change in the mean, range, or variability of temperature) or indirect (e.g., damages caused by an increase in the frequency of coastal flooding due to sea level rise) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/27567a63-e071-4581-b446-083be6ab047f","prefLabel":{"en":"Social construction of risk"},"definition":{"en":"The process by which disaster risk exists as a result of human decisions, perceptions and actions, policies and practice, whether individually or collectively, publicly or privately enacted."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Recognition of the underlying social drivers of risk to infrastructure and services is an important reminder that disasters are not “natural” and are amenable to risk reduction and mitigation actions if those drivers are understood.\n\nUnderlying risk drivers such as poverty and inequality, badly planned and managed urban and infrastructure development, environmental degradation, climate change, conflict and displacement and weak territorial governance configure hazard, vulnerability and exposure. These in turn generate patterns of everyday, extensive, intensive and systemic risk. Risk tends to become concentrated in the same social groups and territories, independently of the type of hazard involved."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/789a6460-d2fd-4443-b10d-7b36d8c0f41b","prefLabel":{"en":"Stressors"},"definition":{"en":"Events and trends, often not climate-related, that have an important effect on the system exposed and can increase vulnerability to climate-related risk."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f6eb38ea-3183-447e-90e2-e4078f05f531","prefLabel":{"en":"Heat stress"},"definition":{"en":"A range of conditions in, for example, terrestrial or aquatic organisms when the body absorbs excess heat during overexposure to high air or water temperatures or thermal radiation. In aquatic water-breathing animals, hypoxia and acidification can exacerbate vulnerability to heat. Heat stress in mammals (including humans) and birds, both in air, is exacerbated by a detrimental combination of ambient heat, high humidity and low wind speeds, causing regulation of body temperature to fail."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/99ec2ddc-91e4-464a-a269-37eb713309c8","prefLabel":{"en":"Surprises"},"definition":{"en":"A class of risk that can be defined as low-likelihood but well-understood events and events that cannot be predicted with current understanding (see Section 1.4.4.3 in AR6 WGI Chapter 1)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5eaac414-08ae-4ac9-a135-4caa913addc2","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic climate risks"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Systemic climate risks can be referred to as the possibility of interaction effects and feedback loops between risks and systems, rather than a hierarchical structure as cascading risks might suggest (Gaupp et al., 2020; Puma et al., 2015; Bednar-Friedl et al., 2022)"},"scopeNote":{"en":["While the term “cascading” is more frequently used in the industry context, the term “systemic” is more frequent in the agriculture context."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/22d26607-ad7d-48cf-b336-658d71c26ec6","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic risk"},"definition":{"en":"In the context of infrastructure, systemic risk is a cumulative risk to a system as an outcome of physical, biological, social, environmental, or technological shocks and stresses. These may be internal/external to the system. Impact on individual components of the system (assets, networks and sub-systems) becomes systemic due to interdependence/interactions between them (DRI Lexicon, 2023).\n\nRisk of a ‘System’ due to interaction effects of elements of a system (UNDRR, 2022 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Systemic risk can be seen as a feature of systems at all possible scales – global, national, regional and local – with varying system boundaries depending on the context.\n\nInteractions within a system can either aggravate or contain the overall effect of the constituent parts, creating the potential for cascading impacts on system elements far from the first impact. See also \"\"Feedback loops\"\".\n\nA key attribute of systemic risk is that it can transgress spatial and sectoral boundaries with other systems, sectors and geographical regions, thus leading to cascading effects."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5eaac414-08ae-4ac9-a135-4caa913addc2","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic climate risks"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Systemic climate risks can be referred to as the possibility of interaction effects and feedback loops between risks and systems, rather than a hierarchical structure as cascading risks might suggest (Gaupp et al., 2020; Puma et al., 2015; Bednar-Friedl et al., 2022)"},"scopeNote":{"en":["While the term “cascading” is more frequently used in the industry context, the term “systemic” is more frequent in the agriculture context."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a70d9c65-2663-4d55-a53d-76f3610b6b0d","prefLabel":{"en":"Transboundary climate risk"},"altLabel":{"en":["Cross-border climate risk","Teleconnected climate risk","Cascading climate risk","International climate risk","Telecoupling climate risk","Transnational climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Transboundary climate risks are climate risks that cross national borders. They comprise two sets of risk associated with:\n• The transboundary impacts of climate change.\n• The transboundary effects of adaptation – positive or negative – made by one or more countries that have repercussions for others. (AWB - transboundary climate risks: an overview) (Adaptation Without Borders, 2021).\n\nTransboundary risks are the products of borders and geography. Risks are transmitted from one region to another through flows between countries and systematic environmental processes such as downwind movement of air pollution, flows of water and fluctuating resources such as fisheries. These can result both from the effects of climate change dirctly, as well as adaptation or non-adaptation responses. The mechanisms of transmission of risk also have multiple direct and indirect pathways and cascade through complex socioeconomic–ecological systems (Challinor and Benton, 2017; Hedlund et al., 2018)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In many instances, literature on transboundary climate risks describes cases where actors share a physical border, including transboundary river basins (Manteaw, 2020; Margulis et al., 2010). Increasingly, however, authors have also begun to broaden the use of this phrase, referring also to climate risks across noncontiguous borders such as those transmitted through trade and supply chains (e.g., Benzie et al., 2019; Challinor et al., 2017; Koks et al., 2019).\n\nThe term \"transboundary\" is sometimes used interchangeably with \"transnational\". While “transboundary” implies a specific focus on the crossing of a border, “transnational” more clearly references the role of the nation state and often invokes the political scientific roots of the term to mean including at least one non-state actor (Risse-Kappen, 1995). Benzie et al. (2017) identified the same dichotomy and conducted a survey of adaptation experts, where respondents were asked how confusing or meaningful various terms were. Survey results suggested that the term “transboundary” was less confusing than “transnational,” but also potentially less accurate.\n\nEfforts to speak a common language on transboundary climate change risks have been hampered by the sheer diversity of terms in use (‘transnational’, ‘transboundary’, ‘telecoupling’, ‘teleconnected’, ‘cross-border’, ‘cascading’, ‘indirect’, ‘systemic’, ‘international’ to name a few) and the lack of an emerging lexicon that could be considered dominant (Benzie et al. 2016). But assessments have taken place of each terms’ relative merit vis-à-vis respective audiences and proposed definitions of ‘transboundary adaptation’ have enhanced conceptual clarity of the possible response mechanisms (Benzie et al. 2016, Nadin and Roberts 2018). \n\nAt least three distinct approaches to conceptualizing transboundary climate risks can be identified: (i) by the nature of the risk, such as the two categories proposed by the Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures and adopted, for example, by Wei and Chase (2018); (ii) by the mode of transmission, such as the seven categories put forward by Carter et al. (2021), four mechanisms outlined by Challinor et al. (2018), four pathways conceptualized by Benzie et al. (2016), six classifications presented by Hilden et al. (2016) ´ , and eight teleconnections proposed by Moser and Hart (2015); and (iii) by what one might term the “public policy impact domain,” such as PwC’s\n(2013) five themes."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/24a07f25-ee92-4864-94dc-58ec9c6233ba","prefLabel":{"en":"Uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"A state of incomplete knowledge that can result from a lack of information or from disagreement about what is known or even knowable. It may have many types of sources, from imprecision in the data to ambiguously defined concepts or terminology, incomplete understanding of critical processes or uncertain projections of human behaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative measures (e.g., a probability density function) or by qualitative statements (e.g., reflecting the judgement of a team of experts) (Moss and Schneider, 2000; IPCC, 2004; Mastrandrea et al., 2010) (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fe93c919-7765-4c03-b9af-10856e6d452f","prefLabel":{"en":"Deep uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"A situation of deep uncertainty exists when experts or stakeholders do not know or cannot agree on: (1) appropriate conceptual models that describe relationships among key driving forces in a system, (2) the probability distributions used to represent uncertainty about key variables and parameters and/or (3) how to weigh and value desirable alternative outcomes (Lempert et al., 2003) (IPCC AR6, 2023). Deep uncertainty also arises from actions taken over time in response to unpredictable evolving situations (Marchau et al. 2019 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/184b242c-189b-4e96-9da3-c2c47a001456","prefLabel":{"en":"Interpolation uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"Uncertainty arising from a statistical or physical model-based interpolation of a field between available estimates to create a more spatio-temporally complete estimate."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/995efb27-fccf-44c6-a7a5-57f201b6bbee","prefLabel":{"en":"Sampling uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"Uncertainty arising from incomplete or uneven availability of measurements in either space or time or both."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d1831632-193b-4c90-afcf-a469309e7151","prefLabel":{"en":"Vulnerability"},"definition":{"en":"The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt (IPCC AR6, 2023). The susceptibility of an individual, a community, assets, or systems to the impacts of hazards can be determined by a combination of physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes (adapted from UNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3a03576d-40a8-4388-a0d8-e5695e86963d","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate change vulnerability"}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/45d3f831-191c-4f23-9666-5d0bf11a2ef2","prefLabel":{"en":"Risk model"},"altLabel":{"en":["Risk models"]},"definition":{"en":"A risk model is usually a mathematical representation of a system, whose aim is to quantify the probability, location, and intensity of a future adverse event and its consequences due to exposure and vulnerability conditions. These models typically use historical data, expert knowledge, and theoretical insights in their construction. More recently in the context of climate change, risk models also take into account future climate scenarios (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5e8c0512-bd62-488a-bdbf-eecd38842997","prefLabel":{"en":"River discharge"},"definition":{"en":"Water flow within a river channel, for example, expressed in m3s–1. A synonym for river streamflow."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4c375a9d-0d0b-4aeb-9bd8-d86f14df8674","prefLabel":{"en":"Rotavirus (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Rotaviruses are the most common cause of severe diarrhoeal disease in young children throughout the world. According to WHO estimates in 2013 about 215,000 children aged under 5 years die each year from vaccine-preventable rotavirus infections; the vast majority of these children live in low-income countries (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Rotavirus. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 10 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Rotavirus, a member of the reovirus family, causes watery diarrhoea, vomiting and severe dehydration in young children. Rotavirus is common, accounting for 35–60% of acute severe diarrhoea in children less than 5 years of age in countries without rotavirus vaccine, with the highest attributable percentage in infants. Rotavirus diarrhoea is ubiquitous and children are infected at an early age. It often causes nosocomial outbreaks on paediatric wards where handwashing and other infection prevention and control measures are lax (WHO, 2018a). Rotavirus is highly communicable; it is shed in the stool at high concentration, and transmission is through the faecal-oral route, either person-to-person or through fomites in the environment. The incubation period is one to three days. There is a spectrum of clinical disease with the typical presentation being acute, watery, non-bloody diarrhoea often accompanied by vomiting and fever (WHO, 2018a). Symptoms also include loss of appetite and dehydration due to loss of body fluids (WHO, 2017). Rotavirus peaks in cool, dry seasons in temperate climates but exhibits less pronounced seasonality in tropical settings (WHO, 2018a). Rotavirus has a case-fatality rate of approximately 2.5% among children in developing countries who present to health facilities. This case-fatality rate is higher in areas without good access to health care. In 2013, rotavirus caused an estimated 215,000 deaths worldwide (WHO, 2018a). Rotavirus diarrhoea cannot be distinguished clinically from other types of diarrhoea, but laboratory confirmation can be done if necessary (WHO, 2017). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2018a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/464d2cdf-3e8a-4312-afd4-42ca3aa869be","prefLabel":{"en":"Scenario"},"definition":{"en":"A plausible description of how the future may develop based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about key driving forces (e.g., rate of technological change, prices) and relationships. Note that scenarios are neither predictions nor forecasts, but are used to provide a view of the implications of developments and actions (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b033bfeb-21e8-40a6-823c-e8f83d7a8504","prefLabel":{"en":"Baseline scenario"},"definition":{"en":"See Reference Scenario"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ac1dd519-7571-4b65-95d7-77ef931fdcd0","prefLabel":{"en":"Concentrations scenario"},"definition":{"en":"A plausible representation of the future development of atmospheric concentrations of substances that are radiatively active (e.g., greenhouse gases (GHGs), aerosols, tropospheric ozone), plus human-induced land-cover changes that can be radiatively active via albedo changes, and often used as input to a climate model to compute climate projections."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/943dd414-6b86-4010-b87c-485e9af4d76f","prefLabel":{"en":"Disaster scenario"},"definition":{"en":"Scenarios are descriptions of plausible events that may occur in the future, leading to a particular set of outcomes. In relation to resilient infrastructure, disaster scenarios are based on assumptions about key driving forces, infrastructure interdependencies for a deeper understanding of causality of disruption and failure in the event of a disaster. They include the hazard, vulnerability, and exposure characteristics that predict or project a future disaster of determined magnitude, impact, and effect (Strong et al., 2020)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Disaster scenarios can help articulate measures required to build the resilience of an infrastructure system based on characteristics of risk that may result from one or more of the drivers mentioned above."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/040b394f-1dae-4077-98f3-3af624d7db78","prefLabel":{"en":"Reference scenario"},"definition":{"en":"Scenario used as starting or reference point for a comparison between two or more scenarios (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Note 1: In many types of climate change research, reference scenarios reflect specific assumptions about patterns of socio-economic development and may represent futures that assume no climate policies or specified climate policies, for example those in place or planned at the time a study is carried out. Reference scenarios may also represent futures with limited or no climate impacts or adaptation, to serve as a point of comparison for futures with impacts and adaptation. These are also referred to as baseline scenarios in the literature.\n\nNote 2: Reference scenarios can also be climate policy or impact scenarios, which in that case are taken as a point of comparison to explore the implications of other features, for example, of delay, technological options, policy design and strategy or to explore the effects of additional impacts and adaptation beyond those represented in the reference scenario. \n\nNote 3: The term business as usual scenario has been used to describe a scenario that assumes no additional policies beyond those currently in place and that patterns of socio-economic development are consistent with recent trends. The term is now used less frequently than in the past. Note 4: In climate change attribution or impact attribution research reference scenarios may refer to counterfactual historical scenarios assuming no anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (climate change attribution) or no climate change (impact attribution).\n\nSource: IPCC AR6 (2023)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/83528fcb-bf1e-410e-baa3-c2949dc9bb3c","prefLabel":{"en":"Socio-economic scenario"},"definition":{"en":"A scenario that describes a plausible future in terms of population, gross domestic product (GDP), and other socio-economic factors relevant to understanding the implications of climate change."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/494df12e-8563-4870-bea5-bd93c10e8526","prefLabel":{"en":"Science communication"},"altLabel":{"en":["scientific communication"]},"definition":{"en":"Science communication can be defined as the use of appropriate skills, media, activities, and dialogue to produce personal responses to science, such as awareness, enjoyment, interest, opinion, understanding (Burns et al., 2003 in NERC, 2022).\n\nSource: NERC, 2022.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6131c736-53bb-4c8b-b0bd-07e27e153e84","prefLabel":{"en":"Scoping"},"definition":{"en":"Scoping involves the synthesis and analysis of a wide range of research and non-research material to provide greater conceptual clarity about a specific topic or field of evidence (Davis et al., 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/97e1edfb-41b1-4bff-998e-283459aa2e2d","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)"},"definition":{"en":"Change to the height of sea level, both globally and locally (relative sea level change) at seasonal, annual, or longer time scales due to (1) a change in ocean volume as a result of a change in the mass of water in the ocean (e.g., due to melt of glaciers and ice sheets), (2) changes in ocean volume as a result of changes in ocean water density (e.g., expansion under warmer conditions), (3) changes in the shape of the ocean basins and changes in the Earth’s gravitational and rotational fields and (4) local subsidence or uplift of the land. Global mean sea level change resulting from change in the mass of the ocean is called barystatic. The amount of barystatic sea level change due to the addition or removal of a mass of water is called its sea level equivalent (SLE). Sea level changes, both globally and locally, resulting from changes in water density are called steric. Density changes induced by temperature changes only are called thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are called halosteric. Barystatic and steric sea level changes do not include the effect of changes in the shape of ocean basins induced by the change in the ocean mass and its distribution."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/54ac329b-43f1-42c8-a1c2-90fbc926d20b","prefLabel":{"en":"Geocentric sea level change"},"definition":{"en":"The change in local mean sea surface height with respect to the terrestrial reference frame; it is the sea level change observed with instruments from space."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cdc111b0-a3cc-42b8-9693-756aa7010105","prefLabel":{"en":"Global mean sea level (GMSL) change"},"definition":{"en":"The increase or decrease in the volume of the ocean divided by the ocean surface area. It is the sum of changes in ocean density through temperature changes (global mean thermosteric sea level change) and changes in the ocean mass as a result of changes in the cryosphere or land water storage (barystatic sea level change)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bdf4aa64-ea4f-4930-b623-a3afcc5fef9f","prefLabel":{"en":"Gravitational, rotational and deformational (GRD) effects"},"definition":{"en":"Changes in Earth gravity, Earth rotation and viscoelastic solid Earth deformation (GRD) result from the redistribution of mass between terrestrial ice and water reservoirs and the ocean. Contemporary terrestrial mass loss leads to elastic solid Earth uplift and a nearby relative sea level fall (for a single source of terrestrial mass loss this is within ~2000 km, for multiple sources the distance depends on the interaction of the different relative sea level patterns). Farther away (more than ~7000 km for a single source of terrestrial mass loss), relative sea level rises more than the global average, due (to first order) to gravitational effects. Earth deformation associated with adding water to the oceans and a shift of the Earth’s rotation axis towards the source of terrestrial mass loss leads to second-order effects that increase spatial variability of the pattern globally. GRD effects due to the redistribution of ocean water within the ocean itself are referred to as self-attraction and loading effects."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/83a1157e-73dd-436d-8b09-6bdfdeb0b9f1","prefLabel":{"en":"Halosteric sea level change"},"definition":{"en":"Halosteric sea level change occurs as a result of salinity variations: higher salinity leads to higher density and decreases the volume per unit of mass. Although both processes can be relevant on regional to local scales, only thermosteric changes impact the global mean sea level (GMSL) change, whereas the global mean halosteric change is negligible (Gregory et al., 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6a686674-5473-40c5-9a51-8c7f54ea01c5","prefLabel":{"en":"Local sea level change"},"definition":{"en":"Sea-level change (sea-level rise / sea-level fall) is a change to the height of sea level, both globally and locally (relative sea-level change) at seasonal, annual, or longer time scales due to: a change in ocean volume as a result of a change in the mass of water in the ocean (e.g., due to melt of glaciers and ice sheets); to changes in ocean volume as a result of changes in ocean water density (e.g., expansion under warmer conditions), and to changes in the shape of the ocean basins and changes in the Earth’s gravitational and rotational fields, and local subsidence or uplift of the land (IPCC, 2019).IPCC, 2019. Annex I: Glossary [Weyer, N.M. (ed.)]. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Accessed 21 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Global mean sea-level change resulting from change in the mass of the ocean is termed barystatic. The amount of barystatic sea-level change due to the addition or removal of a mass of water is referred to as its sea-level equivalent (SLE). Sea-level changes, both globally and locally, resulting from changes in water density are termed steric. Density changes induced by temperature changes only are termed thermosteric, while density changes induced by salinity changes are termed halosteric. Barystatic and steric sea-level changes do not include the effect of changes in the shape of ocean basins induced by the change in the ocean mass and its distribution (IPCC, 2019). Global mean sea level rose by 0.19 m (0.17–0.21 m) between 1901 and 2010 (Abram et al., 2019). The rate of sea-level rise increased from 1.4 mm yr–1 over the period 1901–1990, to 2.1 mm yr–1 over the period 1970–2015, to 3.2 mm yr–1 over the period 1993–2015, to 3.6 mm yr–1 over the period 2006–2015 (Oppenheimer et al., 2019). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects future global mean sea level rise to be between 0.43 m (0.29–0.59 m, likely range; RCP2.6) and 0.84 m (0.61–1.10 m, likely range; RCP8.5) by 2100 (medium confidence) relative to 1986–2005 (Oppenheimer et al., 2019). Local or relative seal-level rise will depart from this global mean due to local/regional conditions (e.g., local oceanic water currents or local land uplift/subsidence). Sea-level rise is projected to increase the frequency of extreme sea-level events, leading to more frequent inundation. In several regions of the world, current inundation with a return period of one century could become annual events as soon as 2050 (Oppenheimer et al., 2019) and flooding frequency could increase exponentially, doubling every five years in the future (Taherkhani et al., 2020). Global sea level is projected to continue to rise after 2100, up to 2.3–5.4 m by 2300 under the high IPCC emission scenario (RCP8.5). There are large uncertainties about the level of contribution of the melting ice sheets from Greenland and Antarctica to global mean sea-level rise. Recent observations indicate an acceleration of melting and raise questions about a tipping point being reached that makes the melting irreversible over time (e.g., Lenton et al., 2019; King et al., 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a7b7f0e8-bb9a-4435-9b57-fef3ccbc6a74","prefLabel":{"en":"Ocean dynamic sea level change"},"definition":{"en":"Change in mean sea level relative to the geoid associated with circulation and density-driven changes in the ocean. Ocean dynamic sea level change is regionally varying but by definition has a zero global mean and conventionally is inverse-barometer corrected (i.e., the effect of the hydrostatic depression of the sea surface by atmospheric pressure changes is removed). Changes in ocean currents occur due to variations in heating and cooling, variability in winds and changes in seasonally to annually averaged air temperature and humidity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42f4991d-b08d-4cc9-bde1-a582894d5475","prefLabel":{"en":"Relative sea level (RSL) change"},"definition":{"en":"The change in local mean sea surface height (SSH) relative to the local solid surface, that is, the sea floor, as measured by instruments that are fixed to the Earth’s surface, such as tide gauges. This reference frame is used when considering coastal impacts, hazards and adaptation needs."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cf532c6d-934d-46b8-b0d4-a477b830af66","prefLabel":{"en":"Steric sea level change"},"definition":{"en":"Steric sea level change is caused by changes in ocean density and is composed of thermosteric sea level change and halosteric sea level change."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c925d856-d148-41a7-bbe4-c2abfe1530f1","prefLabel":{"en":"Thermosteric sea level change"},"definition":{"en":"Thermosteric sea level change (where thermosteric sea level rise may also be referred to as thermal expansion) occurs as a result of changes in ocean temperature: increasing temperature reduces ocean density and increases the volume per unit of mass."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e2b5d128-27f0-4061-8ee7-a56ac5d2ae4f","prefLabel":{"en":"Sea level equivalent (SLE)"},"definition":{"en":"The SLE of a mass of water, ice, or water vapour is that mass, converted to a volume using a density of 1000 kg m–3, and divided by the present-day ocean surface area of 3.625 × 1000 m2. Thus, 362.5 Gt of water mass added to the ocean correspond to 1 mm of global mean sea level rise."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fc8017fd-8ba3-42db-8d1f-bc7693388cc5","prefLabel":{"en":"Seismogenic (Earthquakes)"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/26de1415-46fe-43f6-87e1-d79adff16ac8","prefLabel":{"en":"Earthquake"},"altLabel":{"en":["Earth tremor"]},"definition":{"en":"Earthquake is a term used to describe both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic activity, or other sudden stress changes in the Earth (USGS, no date).USGS, no date. Earthquake glossary. United States Geological Survey (USGS). Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Earthquake hazards are the physical phenomena that result from the occurrence of an earthquake. Primary earthquake hazards are those phenomena that occur most directly from an earthquake: ground shaking, landslides (and debris flow), liquefaction, surface rupture (and fissures), and subsidence/uplift. Secondary earthquake hazards are those that are caused by primary hazards, and include tsunami, seiche, flooding, fire and ground gases (PNSN, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fb3cb18e-89aa-438e-b5c6-51171f91a65d","prefLabel":{"en":"Earthquake Surface Rupture, Fissures, and Tectonic Uplift/Subsidence"},"altLabel":{"en":["Coseismic subsidence","Ground deformation,","Surface faulting,","Fault displacement,","Fault offset,","Fault scarp,"]},"definition":{"en":"Earthquake surface ruptures and fissures are localised ground displacements that develop during and immediately after an earthquake, where the fault which hosted the earthquake intersects the Earth’s surface. Surface ruptures represent the upward continuation of fault slip at depth, while fissures are smaller displacements, or more distributed deformation in and around the rupture area (adapted from USGS, no date and PNSN, no date).Tectonic uplift and subsidence are the distributed vertical permanent ground deformations (warping) that result from displacement on a dipping (inclined) fault (Styron, 2019).Earthquake surface ruptures and fissures are localised ground displacements that develop during and immediately after an earthquake, where the fault which hosted the earthquake intersects the Earth’s surface. Surface ruptures represent the upward continuation of fault slip at depth, while fissures are smaller displacements, or more distributed deformation in and around the rupture area (adapted from USGS, no date and PNSN, no date).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Most earthquakes are caused by displacement (sliding) of the Earth’s crust at a fault. The relative motion of the crust on either side of the fault results in persistent or permanent deformation of the Earth’s surface, in addition to the ground shaking resulting from the sudden release of energy during the earthquake. Surface ruptures, fissures, and uplift and subsidence are all manifestations of this longer-term deformation, and although less dramatic, may all pose hazards during and after earthquakes (Styron, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b891db6d-b907-42bf-858e-b6d9a538df32","prefLabel":{"en":"Ground Gases (Seismogenic)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Gas-contaminated land","Landfill gas,","Magmatic gases,","Volcanic gases,","Radon,","Soil gases,"]},"definition":{"en":"Ground gases generated in the ground from magma (molten or semimolten natural material derived from the melting of land or oceanic crust) include carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen halides (adapted from IVHHN, 2020 and USGS, no date).IVHHN, 2020. The health hazards of volcanic and geothermal gases: A guide for the public. International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN). Accessed 15 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Volcanogenic gases escape from magma as a consequence of the pressure relief that occurs as the magma rises to the surface. These gases are also released via geothermal systems and fault systems activated by earthquakes. King et al. (2006) found elevated concentrations of soil gases such as carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen, mercury vapour and radon in fault zones associated with earthquakes. These gases are released in combination with water vapour and particulate matter during volcanogenic events, or via fumaroles, and hydrothermal systems, as well as faults activated by earthquake events. It has been suggested that radon monitoring might be used for earthquake early warning systems. Earthquakes can also trigger the release of soil gases derived from other sources, such as the chemical or biological processes that generate ground gases, including the breakdown of uranium-bearing minerals releasing radon from granite or by oxidation and/or biogenic reduction (releasing hydrogen sulphide) as well as the release of anthropogenic stores of gas. For example, rupture of tanks and pipes (WHO, 2018), as well as landfill gas, a product of the largely biogenic decomposition of anthropogenic waste. Its composition reflects that of the waste, but is dominated by methane and carbon dioxide, becoming more carbon dioxide rich as the waste ages, and with a small amount of non-methane organic compounds. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas (US EPA, no date a). Ground gases from material decay (natural or anthropogenic) typically include radon, methane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide, but may also include the breakdown products of other compounds, such as nitrogen, alcohols, alkanes, cycloalkanes and alkenes, aromatic hydrocarbons (monocyclic or polycyclic); esters and ethers, as well as halogenated compounds and organosulphur (US EPA, no date b; USGS, no date). Ground gases are a hazard owing to the risk to human health and/or their flammability. As an example, the UK limits for several gases are summarised below from sources other than earthquake triggered gases: Methane is a colourless, odourless flammable gas. When the concentration of methane in air (oxygen 20.9% by volume, % v/v) is between the limits of 5% v/v and 15% v/v, an explosive mixture is formed. The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) of methane is 5% v/v, which is equivalent to 100% LEL. The 15% v/v limit is known as the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL), but concentrations above this level cannot be assumed to represent safe concentrations, owing to the potential for dilution to the UEL (PHE, 2015). Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas, which, although non-flammable, is both a toxic gas and an asphyxiant. As carbon dioxide is denser than air, it will collect in low points and depressions, which can be an extreme hazard during foundation construction and earth movements on development sites. the Long-Term Exposure Limit (LTEL, 8-hour period) and the Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL, 15-minute period), are 0.5% v/v and 1.5% v/v carbon dioxide, respectively (HSE, no date). Radon is a colourless, odourless radioactive gas derived from the radioactive decay of radium, itself from radioactive decay of uranium. The UK target level for homes is 100 Bq/m3 (PHE, no date). Levels of hydrogen sulphide of 100 ppm and higher are considered immediately dangerous to life and health (WorkSafe BC, no date). Radon species, concentration and flux emitted in soil gas in active fault zones near Beijing have been reported by Chen et al. (2018), with a maximum flux of 334.56 mBq/m2/s being observed in the Fengnan district located at the epicentre of the 28 July 1976 earthquake. Chen et al. (2018) reported that these concentrations warrant mitigation measures and advised that fault zones in earthquake regions should be monitored as part of the pre-development land planning procedure. Another source of ground gas with a potential for release by earthquake is methane hydrates associated with continental margins (Geology.com, 2005-2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4dbb22e4-bc0b-453f-a5cc-8a2516deca32","prefLabel":{"en":"Ground Shaking (Earthquake)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ground motion,","Ground vibration,","Local ground response,","Seismicity,","Shaking intensity,","Vibration"]},"definition":{"en":"Earthquake ground shaking is the movement of the Earth’s surface produced by seismic waves that are generated when an earthquake occurs (adapted from USGS, no date).USGS, no date. Earthquake glossary. United States Geological Survey (USGS). Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Earthquake ground shaking is produced by waves that are generated by sudden slip on a fault that travel through the Earth and along its surface (USGS, no date a). All earthquakes, both natural and man-made, generate seismic waves. Seismic waves radiate outward from the earthquake origin, forming a circular wave front that causes shaking over an extended region (Stein and Wysession, 2003). The strength and duration of the ground shaking at any given location depends on many factors, predominantly the magnitude of the earthquake, distance to earthquake origin, and local soil conditions. Thus, at each site, ground shaking from an earthquake is unique and can vary significantly from location to location (USGS, no date b). Ground shaking is the predominant seismic hazard (secondary seismic hazards include liquefaction, surface rupture, landslides etc.), causing more than 90% of earthquake damage and losses (National Institute of Building Sciences Building Seismic Safety Council, 2010). Earthquake ground shaking scales with the source earthquake’s magnitude, as well as the distance from the earthquake to a particular location, the depth of the earthquake, and the properties of the rock and soil between the earthquake and a given observation site. Earthquake magnitudes are given using one of several broadly equivalent scales, with the ‘moment magnitude’ scaling being the preferred measure of an earthquake’s size, as it quantifies the energy released by the earthquake (USGS, no date c). The magnitude scale is logarithmic; each increase of 1 magnitude unit (i.e., 4.3 to 5.3) represents an order of magnitude (factor of 10) increase in the amplitude of seismic measurements, and a factor of 32 increase in the energy release of an earthquake (USGS, no date a). Earthquakes of Magnitude 7.0 and above tend to cause widespread, intense ground shaking; while earthquakes of Magnitudes 6.0 to 6.9 may cause local damage. Note that damage may be more severe and widespread for an earthquake of a given magnitude and other characteristics in regions of fragile buildings and high-density populations."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6733f3a8-ec9d-4a56-942b-180ca74b1199","prefLabel":{"en":"Landslide or Debris Flow (Earthquake Trigger)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Mass Movement,","Mass wasting,","Slip"]},"definition":{"en":"Landslide is the downslope movement of soil, rock and organic materials under the effects of gravity, which occurs when the gravitational driving forces exceed the frictional resistance of the material resisting on the slope. Landslides could be terrestrial or submarine (Varnes, 1978).Varnes, D.J., 1978. Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster, R.L. and R.J. Krizek (eds), Landslides, Analysis and Control. Special report 176: Transportation research board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. pp. 11-33.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["A landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope; a type of ‘mass wasting’, which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity. The term ‘landslide’ encompasses five modes of slope movement: falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows. These are subdivided according to the type of geologic material (bedrock, debris, or earth). Slope movement occurs when forces acting down-slope (mainly due to gravity) exceed the strength of the earth materials that compose the slope (Varnes, 1978). Earthquake triggered landslides typically affect steep slopes and slopes underlain by sediments that are prone to liquefaction. Rock falls are the most abundant landslides in seismic events and occur in virtually all types of rocks on slopes steeper than 40° (Keefer, 1984). The behaviour of material on hillsides is highly dependent on the amplitudes of seismic waves that reach them, and this will vary with the epicentre distance and depth, as well as the magnitude (M) of an earthquake. Keefer (1984) from a study of historic earthquakes showed that the maximum area likely to be affected by landslides in a seismic event ranges from 0 km2 at M=4 to 500,000 km2 at M=9.2. Materials most susceptible to earthquake-induced landslide were found to include weakly cemented rocks, more indurated rocks with pervasive discontinuities, residual and colluvial sand, volcanic soils with sensitive clays (e.g., Iburi–Tobu earthquake, Hokkaido; Kameda et al., 2019), loess, alluvium and deltaic deposits. First-time slides were more common than landslide reactivation. Rock falls, rockslides, soil falls and disrupted soil slides were initiated by weak shaking; coherent deeper-seated landslides required stronger shaking; lateral spreads and flows required even stronger shaking, and rock and soil avalanches required the strongest shaking (Keefer, 1984). Within a given region, it is possible to discriminate, earthquake-triggered landslides from landslides initiated by other triggering processes. For example, Lee (2012) reported that earthquake-induced landslides in Taiwan are mostly located on steeper, longer slopes and at a higher position of the slope when compared to storm-induced shallow landslides, suggesting that topographic amplification plays an important role in earthquake-induced landslides. In hard rock terrains, earthquakes trigger a higher proportion of rock fall landslides. Zhang et al. (2014) compared earthquake-triggered landslides with rainfall-triggered landslides in the Wenchuan area of China and found that the earthquake landslides were steeper, larger landslides dominated in areas underlain by harder rocks compared with areas underlain by alluvium. In contrast, the rainfall-induced landslides were characterised by a greater volume of channelled deposits and were of a higher density but smaller area and were characterised by debris slides and debris flows. In areas that are underlain by weak rocks that are saturated, strong earthquake-induced ground shaking will result in more landslides than normal (Fan et al., 2019). Earthquake shaking and other factors can also induce landslides underwater. These are called submarine landslides. Submarine landslides sometimes cause tsunamis that damage coastal areas (Hungr et al., 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ae26ba55-1a64-4960-abba-f265956e74c5","prefLabel":{"en":"Liquefaction (Earthquake Trigger)"},"definition":{"en":"Soil liquefaction occurs when soil is transformed from a solid to a liquid state as a result of increased pore pressure and reduced effective stress. It is typically caused by rapid loading of the soil during earthquake shaking (AGI, 2017).AGI, 2017. Liquefaction [soil]. American Geosciences Institute (AGI). Accessed 14 October 2002.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["For liquefaction to occur, the shear strength of the soil volume (e.g., the strength due to contact between individual soil grains) must be reduced to near-zero. In the case of earthquakes, strong shaking applies a cyclic load to the soil body. If the soil body compresses under this load, the pore-water pressure will increase, causing the grains to separate thus reducing soil strength (Kramer, 1996). Soil compression increases the pore-water pressure, causing the water to move toward the Earth’s surface where pressure is lower. Under typical loading (e.g., from temperature changes, increased groundwater), the water then drains, and contact between grains retain their strength. However, when loading cycles occur rapidly, such as during an earthquake, intermittent drainage is prohibited, and liquefaction may initiate (Kramer, 1996). The following characteristics are common to deposits most susceptible to liquefaction (Kramer, 1996): Some of the most common landforms in which liquefaction occurs are marshlands, riverbanks, beaches, and floodplains. Post-earthquake field studies have shown that earthquake-triggered liquefaction often recurs at the same locations (Kramer, 1996). Earthquake-induced liquefaction can have varied effects on the surrounding built environment. Buildings, infrastructure, and utilities normally supported by the soil may sink, or undergo cracking or other structural damage; pile foundations may buckle or tilt; and lightweight, buried masses such as pipelines may become buoyant and float to the surface. Liquefaction can also cause rapid settling of sediments, flooding (including breaches of earthen embankments or other retaining structures), and lateral spreading of soils (Kramer, 1996). In general, sites closer to an earthquake’s epicentre are more likely to liquefy, while the distance at which sites are susceptible to liquefaction increases with moment magnitude (MW) and the duration (or number of cycles) of ground motion. The smallest earthquake for which liquefaction records exist was MW ~ 5, with the most distant observed liquefaction reaching only ~2 km; by contrast, the most distant liquefaction for an earthquake of MW >7, may exceed 100 km (Ambraseys, 1988). During the 2011 MW 9.0 Tohoku earthquake, damage due to liquefaction occurred at least 250 km from the epicentre (Yamaguchi et al., 2012). Liquefaction susceptibility can be assessed in advance of earthquakes (e.g., Lirer at al., 2019). Often, this is based on a simplified indication of a site’s likelihood to liquefy. A common approach is the liquefaction potential index (LPI), which considers a factor of safety against liquefaction, the layers of earth that might liquefy, and the proximity of these layers to the ground surface (Iwasaki et al., 1984). While several methods are available for determining the factor of safety, they generally reflect the ability of the soil to resist the power of an earthquake. Soil resistance is either measured in situ or estimated based on the surficial deposits and hydrological conditions (Kramer, 1996; Witter et al., 2006). The comparison to earthquake power can be deterministic for the worst-case scenario earthquake (Orhan et al., 2013), or probabilistic for the range of possible earthquakes that could occur (Witter et al., 2006)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/933bf484-8808-436a-a251-bd388230dbc8","prefLabel":{"en":"Subsidence and Uplift, Including Shoreline Change (Earthquake Trigger)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Coseismic uplift/subsidence"]},"definition":{"en":"Tectonic uplift and subsidence are the distributed vertical permanent ground deformations (warping) that result from earthquake displacements on a dipping (inclined) fault (Styron, 2019). This includes changes to the shoreline as a result of uplift and subsidence.Styron, R., 2019. Coseismic uplift and subsidence: An underappreciated seismic threat. Global Earthquake Model Foundation (GEM) Hazard Blog. Accessed 24 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Most earthquakes are caused by displacement (sliding) of the Earth’s crust at a fault. The relative motion of the crust on either side of the fault results in persistent or permanent deformation of the Earth’s surface, in addition to the ground shaking resulting from the sudden release of energy during the earthquake. Tectonic uplift and subsidence are manifestations of this longer-term deformation, and though less dramatic, they may all pose hazards during and after earthquakes (Styron, 2019).","Uplift and subsidence may occur before, during and after volcanic eruptions (Dzurisin, 2007). Before eruptions, uplift and/ or subsidence may be among the first signs that a magmatic system is restless, so monitoring and understanding ground deformation is critical to attempts to understand magmatic systems, forecast eruptions and mitigate volcanic risk (Dzurisin, 2007; Acocella et al., 2015). ‘Volcanic unrest’ is defined as any deviation of ground deformation, seismicity, gas emission, and/or other geophysical and geochemical indicators from normal baselines, increasing the probability of eruption (Acocella, 2019). Volcanic unrest may typically last from hours to months but at some caldera volcanoes, unrest episodes may last for years to decades (Acocella et al., 2015). Some volcanoes that have not erupted for tens to hundreds of years may experience repeated episodes of unrest over several years before a critical threshold is reached and an eruption occurs (e.g., Sigmundsson et al., 2010). During unrest at volcanoes, ground deformation is usually on the order of millimetres to centimetres per year and it is not uncommon for the centre of uplift to move (e.g., Di Vito et al., 2016). Some caldera volcanoes may show deformation rates of metres per year (e.g., Acocella, 2019) and some calderas show very long-term ground deformation (‘resurgence’) which may cause uplift of up to 1 km over hundreds to thousands of years (e.g., Galetto et al., 2017; Acocella, 2019). Volcanic calderas are some of the most dangerous volcanoes on Earth and many have large populations living in and around the caldera (Acocella et al., 2015). They have surface depressions from ~1 km to tens of kilometres across, and up to several kilometres in topographic change from rim to floor (Acocella et al., 2015). Some contain lakes (e.g., Taal, Philippines) and some are semi-submarine (e.g., Santorini, Greece; Krakatau, Indonesia). Most calderas have large (over 1000 km3), long-lived, heterogeneous and active magmatic systems and about 20 caldera volcanoes show unrest each year, most driven by magma intrusion (Acocella et al., 2015). For example, the Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy) is 12 km across and lies under the outskirts of Naples. At least 5 m of uplift was observed in the hours to days before the last eruption at Campi Flegrei in 1538 (from Monte Nuovo) resulting in the seaward retreat of the shoreline by ‘200 paces’ (Parascandola, 1947; Dvorak and Gasparini, 1991). Campi Flegrei experienced major uplifts in 1950–1951, 1969–1972 and 1982–1984 which cumulatively raised the town of Pozzuoli by 4 m. Pozzuoli experienced a maximum of 1.8 m of uplift during unrest in 1982–1984 (Berrino et al., 1984)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9f462a22-25e4-495b-b269-fa07d7ba7a41","prefLabel":{"en":"sensors"},"altLabel":{"en":["control sensors","electronic sensor","embedded sensors","high-tech sensors","innovative sensors","sensor","sensorsystem"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e1bd1fcd-1f90-4622-bdaf-a9aad0c2fd1b","prefLabel":{"en":"Sequestration"},"definition":{"en":"The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c0e0c663-7573-4c6c-b30c-38c2deff89a2","prefLabel":{"en":"Sequestration potential"},"definition":{"en":"The quantity of greenhouse gases that can be removed from the atmosphere by anthropogenic enhancement of sinks and stored in a pool. See Mitigation potential for different subcategories of sequestration potential."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f03bce9e-1c8b-44d3-ab3e-e8488182555c","prefLabel":{"en":"Serious game"},"altLabel":{"en":["Serious gaming","serious games"]},"definition":{"en":"Serious games are interactive simulations that use gaming mechanics to explore complex, often 'wicked' problems—such as climate change—by allowing players to experiment with strategies, experience consequences, and understand the dynamics of disaster scenarios in a risk-free environment (Wen et al., 2023).\n\nSource: Wen et al. 2023.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0873df6e-97ed-4142-9591-c9d369130aad","prefLabel":{"en":"Service provisioning"},"definition":{"en":"Various services (such as illumination and mobility) can be provided by ‘systems’ through the use of energy, materials, and other resources comprising (i) Resource flows (e.g., energy), (ii) Technologies for resource use and energy conversion (e.g., vehicles and their engines), and (iii) Social/organisational forms of service delivery (e.g., publicly owned companies, or privately owned companies, e-commerce)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4ac4cb60-db46-4699-94e0-2dbab9c81465","prefLabel":{"en":"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)"},"altLabel":{"en":["SARS-CoV"]},"definition":{"en":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a viral respiratory illness caused by a coronavirus called SARS-associated coronavirus (SARSCoV) (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Preliminary Clinical Description of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 16 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was first identified at the end of February 2003 during an outbreak that emerged in China and spread to four other countries (WHO, 2020). The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinated the international investigation and worked closely with health authorities in affected countries to provide epidemiological, clinical and logistical support and to bring the outbreak under control (WHO, 2019). Most patients identified with SARS were previously healthy adults aged 25 to 70 years. A few suspected cases of SARS have been reported among children under 15 years of age (WHO, 2020). SARS is spread is by close person-to-person contact. The virus that causes SARS is thought to be transmitted most readily by respiratory droplets (droplet spread) produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. The virus can also spread when a person touches a surface or object contaminated with infectious droplets and then touches his or her mouth, nose, or eye(s). In addition, it is possible that the SARS virus might spread more broadly through the air (airborne spread) or by other ways that are not now known. The incubation period of SARS is usually 2 to 7 days but may be as long as 10 days (WHO, 2020). SARS usually begins with a prodrome of fever (>38°C), which is often high, sometimes associated with chills and rigors and sometimes accompanied by other symptoms including headache, malaise, and myalgias. At the onset of illness, some cases have mild respiratory symptoms (WHO, 2020). The lower respiratory phase begins after 3 to 4 days with the onset of a dry, non-productive cough or dyspnea that may be accompanied by or progress to hypoxemia. In 10% to 20% of cases, the respiratory illness is severe enough to require intubation and mechanical ventilation (WHO, 2020). There is no cure or vaccine for SARS and treatment should be supportive and based on the patient’s symptoms (WHO, 2020). The case fatality among persons with illness meeting the current WHO case definition for probable and suspected cases of SARS is around 3% (WHO, 2020). Laboratory diagnosis is key to determine the aetiology of the symptoms including differential diagnosis with other coronaviruses including SARS-CoV-2. Early clinical recognition of SARS-CoV disease still relies on a combination of clinical, laboratory and epidemiologic features. No specific clinical findings can distinguish with certainty SARS-CoV disease from other respiratory illnesses rapidly (CDC, 2004). No vaccine or specific treatment is available for SARS but it is part of the priority list for the WHO Research and Development Blueprint for Action to Prevent Epidemics (WHO, 2016a). The WHO has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2003a). Metrics and numeric limits Not applicable."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/50e9e5a1-0056-4291-b821-0e20e5de903a","prefLabel":{"en":"Sexually Transmitted Diseases (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["STIs","Sexually transmitted infections,"]},"definition":{"en":"Sexually transmitted diseases are infections transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person through sexual contact (WHO, no date).WHO, no date. Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). Fact Sheet. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 14 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are spread predominantly by sexual contact, including vaginal, anal and oral sex. Some sexually transmitted diseases can also be transmitted through non-sexual means such as via blood or blood products. Many sexually transmitted diseases, including syphilis, hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), chlamydia, gonorrhoea, herpes, and human papillomavirus (HPV), can also be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy and childbirth (WHO, no date). More than 30 different bacteria, viruses and parasites are known to be transmitted through sexual contact. Eight of these pathogens are linked to the greatest incidence of sexually transmitted disease. Of these eight infections, four are currently curable: syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia and trichomoniasis. The other four are viral infections which are incurable: hepatitis B, herpes simplex virus (HSV or herpes), HIV, and HPV. Symptoms or disease due to the incurable viral infections can be reduced or modified through treatment (WHO, no date)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f7784518-9c13-41db-b343-4284972b8eaf","prefLabel":{"en":"Shifting development pathways (SDP)"},"definition":{"en":"In this report, shifting development pathways describes transitions aimed at re-directing existing developmental trends. Societies may put in place enabling conditions to influence their future development pathways, when they endeavour to achieve certain outcomes. Some outcomes may be common, while others may be context-specific, given different starting points."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b2ff1b08-b98c-4279-829b-4eddf0879ed9","prefLabel":{"en":"Shifting development pathways to sustainability (SDPS)"},"definition":{"en":"Shifting development pathways to sustainability involves transitions aligned with a shared aspiration in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agreed globally, though sustainability may be interpreted differently in various contexts as societies pursue a variety of sustainable development objectives."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d07a30af-83a7-4909-8034-5964becda55a","prefLabel":{"en":"Shigellosis (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Shigellosis is an acute invasive enteric infection caused by bacteria belonging to genus Shigella (WHO, 2005).WHO, 2005. Guidelines for the control of shigellosis, including epidemics due to Shigella dysenteriae type 1. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 16 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Shigellosis is clinically manifested by diarrhoea that is frequently bloody. Oher common symptoms are abdominal cramps and tenesmus (unproductive, painful straining), fever and loss of appetite (WHO, 2005). The majority of cases and deaths are among children less than five years of age (WHO, 2005). Shigellosis is endemic in many developing countries and also occurs in epidemics causing considerable morbidity and mortality. It is estimated to cause at least 80 million cases of bloody diarrhoea and 700,000 deaths each year. Ninety-nine percent of infections caused by Shigella occur in developing countries, and the majority of cases (~70%), and of deaths (~60%), occur among children less than five years of age. Probably less than 1% of cases are treated in hospital. Among the four species of Shigella, Shigella dysenteriae type 1 (Sd1) is especially important because it causes the most severe disease and may occur in large regional epidemics. Major obstacles to the control of shigellosis include the ease with which Shigella spreads from person to person and the rapidity with which it develops antimicrobial resistance (WHO, 2005). All species of Shigella cause acute bloody diarrhoea by invading and causing patchy destruction of the colonic epithelium. This leads to the formation of micro-ulcers and inflammatory exudates, and causes inflammatory cells (polymorphonuclear leucocytes, PMNs) and blood to appear in the stool. The diarrhoeal stool contains 106–108 Shigellae per gram. Once excreted, the organism is very sensitive to environmental conditions and dies rapidly, especially when dried or exposed to direct sunlight (WHO, 2005). Definitive diagnosis can only be made by isolating the organism from stool and serotyping the isolate. Culture is also required to determine antimicrobial sensitivity (WHO, 2005). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2005)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c63a520f-2702-434f-9af6-4292376972f9","prefLabel":{"en":"Short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs)"},"definition":{"en":"A set of chemically reactive compounds with short (relative to carbon dioxide (CO2)) atmospheric lifetimes (from hours to about two decades) but characterised by different physiochemical properties and environmental effects. Their emission or formation has a significant effect on radiative forcing over a period determined by their respective atmospheric lifetimes. Changes in their emissions can also induce long-term climate effects via, in particular, their interactions with some biogeochemical cycles. SLCFs are classified as direct or indirect, with direct SLCFs exerting climate effects through their radiative forcing and indirect SLCFs being the precursors of other direct climate forcers. Direct SLCFs include methane (CH4), ozone (O3), primary aerosols and some halogenated species. Indirect SLCFs are precursors of ozone or secondary aerosols. SLCFs can be cooling or warming through interactions with radiation and clouds. They are also referred to as near-term climate forcers. Many SLCFs are also air pollutants. A subset of exclusively warming SLCFs is also referred to as short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs), including methane, ozone, and black carbon (BC)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b798d814-3b28-441a-8610-e26216a98df3","prefLabel":{"en":"Short-lived climate pollutant (SLCP)"},"definition":{"en":"Pollutant emissions that have a warming influence on climate and have a relatively short lifetime in the atmosphere (a few days to a few decades). The main SLCPs are black carbon (BC) ('soot'), methane (CH4) and some hydroflurorcarbons (HFCs) some of which are regulated under the Kyoto Protocol. Some pollutants of this type, including CH4, are also precursors to the formation of tropospheric ozone (O3), a strong warming agent. These pollutants are of interest for at least two reasons. First, because they are short-lived, efforts to control them will have prompt effects on global warming — unlike long-lived pollutants that build up in the atmosphere and respond to changes in emissions at a more sluggish pace. Second, many of these pollutants also have adverse local impacts such as on human health."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2c3a9b02-5908-4b93-b101-bd305dd7c67b","prefLabel":{"en":"Significant wave height"},"definition":{"en":"The average trough-to-crest height of the highest one-third of the wave heights (sea and swell) occurring in a particular time period."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1c41c036-6d81-42b0-a661-1f3569096e6a","prefLabel":{"en":"Silo"},"altLabel":{"en":["silos"]},"definition":{"en":"Silos refer to the separation of institutional, sectoral, and disciplinary efforts, which hinders the integration and coordination necessary for effective climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction (Roth and Rios, 2020).\n\nSource: Roth and Rios, 2020.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2810ea49-284a-4ebf-8a3d-0e1c106a97df","prefLabel":{"en":"Sink"},"definition":{"en":"Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Article 1.8 (UNFCCC, 1992))."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/29a23cc5-e933-4aed-90f6-4984a4c8985b","prefLabel":{"en":"Small island developing states (SIDS)"},"definition":{"en":"Small island developing states (SIDS), as recognised by the United Nations OHRLLS (Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States), are a distinct group of developing countries facing specific social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities (UN-OHRLLS, 2011). They were recognized as a special case both for their environment and development at the Rio Earth Summit in Brazil in 1992. Fifty-eight countries and territories are presently classified as SIDS by the UN OHRLLS, with 38 being UN member states and 20 being Non-UN Members or Associate Members of the Regional Commissions (UN-OHRLLS, 2018)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/14651ea0-95be-4ecc-b4ea-b78cce48a907","prefLabel":{"en":"Smallpox (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Smallpox is an acute contagious disease caused by the variola virus (WHO, 2019).WHO, 2019. Smallpox. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 17 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Smallpox was still endemic in Africa and Asia at the end of the 1960s. Vaccination campaigns, and surveillance and prevention measures were undertaken to contain epidemic hotspots and to better inform affected populations. Smallpox was officially declared eradicated in 1980 and is the first disease to have been fought on a global scale. This extraordinary achievement was accomplished through the collaboration of countries around the world (WHO, 2010). Before its eradication, smallpox was one of the world’s most devastating diseases known and was fatal in up to 30% of cases (WHO, 2019). Smallpox is transmitted from person to person via infective droplets during close contact with infected symptomatic people (WHO, 2019). Early symptoms include high fever and fatigue. The virus then produces a characteristic rash, particularly on the face, arms and legs (WHO, 2019). The disease can be definitively diagnosed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), genetic sequencing or isolation of the virus from the blood or skin lesions (WHO, 2019). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/08ee7768-c8cb-49a3-99e8-3028765f71c8","prefLabel":{"en":"Smart grids"},"definition":{"en":"A smart grid uses information and communications technology to gather data on the behaviours of suppliers and consumers in the production, distribution, and use of electricity. Through automated responses or the provision of price signals, this information can then be used to improve the efficiency, reliability, economics, and sustainability of the electricity network."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/576ab090-1f71-4c5d-b678-45ca9a34e1b6","prefLabel":{"en":"Social cost of carbon"},"definition":{"en":"The net present value of climate damages (with harmful damages expressed as a positive number) from one more tonne of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), conditional on a global emissions trajectory over time."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b1591a07-011e-42d7-bc9c-c365df423bf0","prefLabel":{"en":"Social costs"},"definition":{"en":"The full costs of an action in terms of social welfare losses, including external costs associated with the impacts of this action on the environment, the economy (GDP, employment) and on the society as a whole."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6917d4c0-6d5e-4297-a1ec-3e2c53aef83c","prefLabel":{"en":"Social group"},"definition":{"en":"A collective of people who share similar characteristics and collectively may have a sense of unity (Forsyth 2010)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2ddb9472-b37f-4ba7-ac9c-8b5bd9ba9626","prefLabel":{"en":"Social hierarchies"},"altLabel":{"en":["social hierarchy"]},"definition":{"en":"Social hierarchies are systems of social organization in which individuals are arranged by group status and have differential access to social and material resources (Serrat, 2017).\n\nSource: Serrat, 2017.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3997a0dd-de05-4edc-9c14-7001285b4913","prefLabel":{"en":"Social identity"},"definition":{"en":"The portion of an individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group (Tajfel and Turner 1986)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b6c1c1ed-ecdc-4dc3-bbdc-e00f24ae78ed","prefLabel":{"en":"Social protection"},"definition":{"en":"In the context of development aid and climate policy, social protection usually describes public and private initiatives that provide income or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihood risks, and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalised, with the overall objective of reducing the economic and social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable, and marginalised groups (Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler, 2004). In other contexts, social protection may be used synonymously with social policy and can be described as all public and private initiatives that provide access to services, such as health, education or housing, or income and consumption transfers to people. Social protection policies protect the poor and vulnerable against livelihood risks and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalised, as well as prevent vulnerable people from falling into poverty."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/81050819-a027-4344-8886-7caec3ce084c","prefLabel":{"en":"Social vulnerability"},"altLabel":{"en":["social vulnerability"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b41e4e12-1744-4e15-a1be-9edae8172c15","prefLabel":{"en":"Societal"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5ef45c3b-60ab-4e1a-933d-f55c34f90105","prefLabel":{"en":"Conflict"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b95a8824-7b98-467e-96a1-2da97dd5ee5f","prefLabel":{"en":"Civil Unrest"},"altLabel":{"en":["Civil disobedience,","Civil disorder,","Civil disturbance","Social unrest,","Terms often used as synonyms include:","Violent disorder,"]},"definition":{"en":"‘Civil unrest’ is an umbrella term for a wide spectrum of phenomena, and although there is no commonly agreed United Nations definition the term is used widely among United Nations agencies, funds and programmes, particularly to describe violent and non-violent group acts.A suggested definition for ‘civil unrest’ is as follows: a term that includes limited political violence (such as acts of ‘terrorism’, individual assassinations, etc.), sporadic violent collective action (such as riots), or nonviolent and mildly violent collective action (such as protests, demonstrations, etc.) – all of which tend to take place in times of peace (Kalyvas, 2000:3).‘Civil unrest’ is an umbrella term for a wide spectrum of phenomena, and although there is no commonly agreed United Nations definition the term is used widely among United Nations agencies, funds and programmes, particularly to describe violent and non-violent group acts.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Despite wide use, there is no commonly used definition for ‘civil unrest’. The term does not feature in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, although related terms, such as riot, terrorism, protest and violent disorder are defined in some national legislation. The United Kingdom’s (1986) Public Order Act (United Kingdom Government, 1986), for example, defines riot and violent disorder. Academic and non-legal definitions are available, as outlined below. Some authors emphasise the explicit non-state affiliation in their definition of ‘civil’ unrest, while others are less clear about the state and non-state contribution. An important distinction is that civil unrest is largely understood to take place in times of peace (Kalyvas, 2000), although not exclusively as noted below by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Instances of civil unrest can take place over short or long timeframes, and are widely although not exclusively, understood to be urban acts (Kalyvas, 2000). While acts such as peaceful protests can have no or relatively minimal disturbance, violent riots can result in deaths, destruction of property and infrastructure (Evans, 1993; Braha, 2012). In the case of civil unrest in Los Angeles in 1992, for example, violence resulted in 53 deaths, 2325 reported injuries and more than USD 735 million in damage to buildings (Evans, 1993). Civil unrest is generally understood to include violent and non-violent group acts such as riots, protest, isolated and sporadic acts of violence (Braha, 2012; Lawand, 2012; Basedau et al., 2018). The perceived or actual motivation for the act is often emphasised when describing collective action as civil unrest, alongside a clash with authority (Ramakrishnan et al., 2014). Frequently cited explanations include tension or dissatisfaction over political, economic or social changes/conditions (Kalyvas, 2000). According to Basedau et al. (2018:5) ‘One can conceptualize civil unrest as a special form of collective action and people need to be motivated and able to exert it.’ Braha (2012) defined civil unrest as a ‘form of collective human dynamics, which has led to major transitions of societies in modern history’, while Oncevay et al. (2020) defined it as ‘public manifestations, where people demonstrate their position for different causes’. Kalyvas (2000:3) defined civil unrest as “a term that includes limited political violence (such as acts of ‘terrorism’, individual assassinations, etc.), sporadic violent collective action (such as riots), or nonviolent and mildly violent collective action (such as protests, demonstrations, etc.) – all of which tend to take place in times of peace.” In contrast, according to Melzer (2009), as part of guidance from the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) on International Humanitarian Law, civil unrest can also take place in times of armed conflict, and can be contextualised as follows: “During armed conflict, political demonstrations, riots, and other forms of civil unrest are often marked by high levels of violence and are sometimes responded to with military force. In fact, civil unrest may well result in death, injury and destruction and, ultimately, may even benefit the general war effort of a party to the conflict by undermining the territorial authority and control of another party through political pressure, economic insecurity, destruction and disorder. It is therefore important to distinguish direct participation in hostilities – which is specifically designed to support a party to an armed conflict against another – from violent forms of civil unrest, the primary purpose of which is to express dissatisfaction with the territorial or detaining authorities.”"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/849c1e52-74e6-4a86-89b4-280238d3e2dd","prefLabel":{"en":"International Armed Conflict (IAC)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Interstate armed conflict,","State-based armed conflict"]},"definition":{"en":"International armed conflict covers all cases of declared war and other de facto armed conflict between two or more States, even if the state of war is not recognised by one of them and/or the use of armed force is unilateral (ICRC, 2016).ICRC, 2016. Commentary on the First Geneva Convention. International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC). Accessed 14 January 2020.
ICRC, 2008. How is the term ‘Armed Conflict’ defined in International Humanitarian Law? Opinion Paper. International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Accessed 15 January 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions provides for “the case of armed conflict not of an international character,” and the definition of Non-International Armed Conflict (NIAC) offered herein reflects the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)’s understanding based on practice and international case-law (ICRC, 2016). The category of NIAC includes: Confrontations must occur between organised Parties possessing organised armed forces (ICRC, 2016). While NIAC occurs predominantly within a State, NIAC may feature extraterritorial aspects (ICRC, 2016) and/or become internationalised with the involvement of foreign States in support of one or more Parties (ICRC, 2016). Armed violence must meet a minimum threshold of intensity that distinguishes it from situations not considered NIAC, including the following: The intensity of violence is assessed on a case-by-case basis based on cumulative evidence relating to objective criteria, and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) developed a non-exhaustive set of ‘indicative factors’ that can be used as examples to determine ‘the seriousness of attacks’ (ICTY, 2008). The termination of NIAC is also based on objective criteria and not the declaration of a ceasefire, armistice, or peace agreement. International humanitarian law “extends beyond the cessation of hostilities until…a peaceful settlement is achieved” (ICTY, 1995: para. 70). The termination of NIAC may be initiated when one of the Parties is summarily defeated and ceases to exist or otherwise dissolves, or when there is a lasting absence of armed confrontations between the original Parties."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4f118fc7-783e-4c03-8734-49c3ddab0c25","prefLabel":{"en":"Economic"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b7d85d0b-8bf4-4003-b9f2-f5c19a5006c4","prefLabel":{"en":"Financial shock"},"altLabel":{"en":["Bank run,","Banking crisis,","Currency crisis,","Debt crisis,","Financial crisis,","Liquidity crisis"]},"definition":{"en":"A financial shock is an unexpected disturbance which originates from the financial sector and has a significant effect on an economy (e.g. national, regional, or global). The term is largely used to refer to events which have negative impacts (ECB, 2013).ECB, 2013. Financial Shocks and the Macroeconomy: Heterogeneity and Non-Linearities. European Central Bank (ECB), Occasional Paper Series No. 143. Accessed 12 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term ‘financial shock’ generally refers to a disruptive event in the financial system, which manifests in the sudden re-pricing of assets (often in combination with a severe deterioration of economic conditions). Financial shocks are difficult to predict but tend to be more likely when borrowers are vulnerable, such as when they have taken on excessive risk relative to their repayment capacity (e.g. highly-leveraged firms that have both uncertain future profits and low liquidity) (Peersman, 2015). Financial shocks may be triggered by different sources of risk, that can be either inside or outside the financial system, and are often amplified by adverse macro-financial feedback effects, such as when a deterioration in economic conditions weakens the solvency of financial institutions and markets, which in turn results in tighter financial conditions for firms and households (Ong and Jobst, 2013). A significant economic slowdown could lead to rising business insolvencies, higher unemployment, and constrained public investment. They can morph into financial crises if a sharp decline in asset prices causes consumers and businesses to default on their loans, and financial institutions become unable to access liquidity – either in terms of cash or assets which are easily convertible into cash (Moretti et al., 2020). For example, the collapse of the U.S. sub-prime mortgage market, prior to the 2007–2009 Global Financial Crisis, was largely driven by excessive leverage of borrowers, an overheated housing market, and insufficient transparency when banks re-packed and combined mortgage loans into new financial instruments, through what is referred to as ‘securitization’ (Jobst, 2008). Recent currency and/or sovereign debt crises also illustrate that unsustainable external imbalances, such as a deteriorating current account (which reflects cross-border economic activities) and rising foreign currency borrowing by public or private sector organisations (if suddenly unwound), can amplify and/or cause fragilities in the financial system. Examples include the cases of the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 2007–2009 Global Financial Crisis (Claessens et al., 2014)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8a2a78ad-b204-4e44-8d42-8f3f206ba21e","prefLabel":{"en":"Post Conflict"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c7c3aaad-b28b-4601-a554-5e0ea10a277c","prefLabel":{"en":"Environmental Degradation from Conflict"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ecological degradation,","Environmental damage"]},"definition":{"en":"Environmental degradation from conflict is defined as the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs (UNISDR, 2009:6).UNISDR, 2009. UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Accessed 25 November 2019. Accessed 25 November 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The types of human-induced degradation are varied and include land misuse, soil erosion and loss, desertification, wildland fires, loss of biodiversity, deforestation, mangrove destruction, land, water and air pollution, climate change, sea-level rise and ozone depletion (UNISDR, 2009:6). Environmental degradation occurs during peace time but can be particularly exacerbated by an armed conflict. The level of environmental damage from conflict depends on several factors: the weapons as well as the tactics used; location of the military operations (e.g. rural vs urban, proximity to industrial sites), the duration of the military conflict (Jensen, 2019) and the pre-war environmental conditions (Biswas, 2000). In parallel, countries might enter the vicious cycle between environmental degradation and conflict as pollution and environmental hazards can on the other hand undermine security and lead to political instability, disasters and regional tensions (Conca and Wallace, 2009). Metrics and numeric limits Not identified."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/543d0b33-3300-4b84-ba13-551db1a1e461","prefLabel":{"en":"Explosive Remnants of War"},"altLabel":{"en":["Abandoned explosive ordnance","Unexploded ordnance,"]},"definition":{"en":"Explosive remnants of war are unexploded ordnance and abandoned explosive ordnance that are left by a party to an armed conflict following the cessation of warfare. Explosive ordnance is defined as conventional munitions containing explosives (United Nations, 2004:2).United Nations, 2004. Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War to the Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which may be deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects (Protocol V). Accessed 13 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The United Nations (2004) definition provided above is from Protocol V of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons but does not include any reference to explosive remnants of war (ERW) in the form of improvised explosive devices. ‘Explosive remnants of war’ is a catchall term for any explosive ordnance that remains unexploded and abandoned following the cessation of conflict. An explosive ordnance may be considered ‘unexploded’ or ‘abandoned’ if it has been “primed, fused, armed, or otherwise prepared for use […] in an armed conflict” prior to being “left behind or dumped by a party to an armed conf lict” (United Nations, 2004:2). Cluster munitions are an example of ERW and have a long history of conventional use by state actors during warfare (UNODA, 2020a). They are “designed to cover an area with explosive force” and have been used in warfare since the Second World War (Bolton and Nash, 2010:175). A cluster munition produces damage by exploding a single projectile, which fragments into a number of smaller explosive ordnance, which then detonate over a large area (Bolton and Nash, 2010:175). Cluster munitions are of particular concern when discussing the impact of ERW, as the impact of unexploded cluster munitions when detonated is significantly higher than other conventional munitions. A study of the comparative impact on civilian populations found that “ten unitary projectiles with a 10 per cent failure rate will leave one unexploded item whereas ten cluster munitions with 100 submunitions each and a 10 per cent failure rate will leave 100 unexploded items – ten times as many” casualties or fatalities (Bolton and Nash, 2010:175). The clearance of cluster munitions has proved extremely challenging in many contexts – for example in Kosovo, where civilians who went in search of provisions such as firewood accidentally detonated the munitions, causing many casualties and fatalities (ICRC, 2001:18). Explosive remnants of war frequently have adverse effects on populations owing to the shedding of chemicals or chemically active compounds into areas where they are abandoned. This can have long-term effects when a population is exposed to the chemicals through contamination of water, soil, food sources, and general living environment. One such example is the presence of depleted uranium, which has had significant impacts on the health of conflict affected populations and their environment since it was introduced into conventional warfare (UNODA, 2020b). Depleted uranium has a high density, which makes it a useful component of kinetic energy weapons such as anti-tank weaponry (Murray et al., 2002). In areas with high radioactive contamination, there is a risk of wildfires burning terrain leading to an uncontrolled re-distribution of radioactive particles – which has a profound negative impact on population health. This has resulted in depleted uranium weapons being used widely with the exploded particle remnants being inhaled by those working and living in the vicinity of the conflict (Murray et al., 2002). The long-term effects of exposure to the remnants of depleted uranium from a health perspective are still unclear, but the environmental impact is profound – with an increase in uranium in water supplies, contaminated soil, and potentially unexploded remnants of depleted uranium munitions (Murray et al., 2002). Metrics and numeric limits Not available."]}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f061eab0-82fc-44a8-929b-e810755c61de","prefLabel":{"en":"Soil carbon sequestration (SCS)"},"definition":{"en":"Land management changes which increase the soil organic carbon content, resulting in a net removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c048e79b-66a9-4d87-934e-498df211d1c3","prefLabel":{"en":"Soil erosion"},"definition":{"en":"Soil erosion is defined as the accelerated removal of topsoil from the land surface through water, wind and tillage (FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Global Symposium on Soil Erosion. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 20 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Soil erosion occurs naturally under all climatic conditions and on all continents, but is significantly increased and accelerated by unsustainable human activities (up to 1000 times) through intensive agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing and improper land use changes. The Status of the World’s Soil Resources report identified soil erosion as one of the major soil threats (FAO, 2015a). Soil erosion rates are much higher than soil formation rates; soil is a finite resource, meaning its loss and degradation is not recoverable within a human lifespan (FAO, 2020). Soil erosion decreases agricultural productivity, degrades ecosystem functions, amplifies hydrogeological risk such as landslides or floods, causes significant losses in biodiversity, damage to urban infrastructure and, in severe cases, leads to displacement of human populations (FAO, 2020). Soil erosion and land degradation pose a major threat to global food security and to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UN, 2015) on ensuring the well-being of at least 3.2 billion people around the world (FAO, 2020). Soils are an essential and non-renewable natural resource hosting goods and services vital to ecosystems and human life. Soils are fundamental for producing crops, feed, fibre, fuel, and they filter and clean tens of thousands of cubic kilometres of water each year. As a major storehouse for carbon, soils also help regulate emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, which is fundamental for regulating climate (FAO, 2017). The World Soil Charter presents a series of nine principles that summarise current understanding of the soil, the multi-faceted role it plays, and the threats to its ability to continue to serve these roles (FAO, 2015b):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3c0c776d-45d0-4749-ac9b-e69bcd0b300c","prefLabel":{"en":"Soil moisture"},"definition":{"en":"Water stored in the soil in liquid or frozen form. Root-zone soil moisture is of most relevance for plant activity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8bdeb7ba-7403-4b76-83be-9b415cab32ed","prefLabel":{"en":"Soil salinity"},"definition":{"en":"Saline soils are those which have an electrical conductivity of the saturation soil extract of more than 4 dS/m at 25°C (Richards, 1954). This value is generally used worldwide although the terminology committee of the Soil Science Society of America has lowered the boundary between saline and non-saline soils to 2 dS/m in the saturation extract (FAO, 1988).Note: dS/m = decisiemens per metre this is equivalent to the measurement of electrical conductivity of the salinity which can also be described as millimho per centimetre, hence 1 dS/m = 1 mmho/cm. Once the dS/m is known this can be converted to either mg/L or parts per million (ppm) (University of California, 2020).Saline soils are those which have an electrical conductivity of the saturation soil extract of more than 4 dS/m at 25°C (Richards, 1954). This value is generally used worldwide although the terminology committee of the Soil Science Society of America has lowered the boundary between saline and non-saline soils to 2 dS/m in the saturation extract (FAO, 1988).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Salt-affected soils consist of saline and sodic soils, which occur in all continents and under almost all climatic conditions, but their distribution is relatively more extensive in the arid and semi-arid regions compared to the humid regions. Soil salinisation and sodification are major soil degradation processes threatening ecosystems and are recognised as being among the most important problems at a global level for agricultural production, food security and sustainability in arid and semi-arid regions. There are extensive areas of salt-affected soils on all the continents, but their extent and distribution have not been studied in detail (FAO, 2020a). Salt-affected soils have serious impacts on soil functions leading to an array of consequences, including significant decreases in agricultural productivity, water quality, soil biodiversity, and soil erosion. Salt-affected soils have a decreased ability to act as a buffer and filter against pollutants. The degradation of soil structure and functions of global ecological systems such as hydrological, nutrient and biogeochemical cycles, impair the provision of ecosystem services, which are critical for supporting human life and biodiversity. Salt-affected soils reduce both the ability of crops to take up water and the availability of micronutrients. They also concentrate ions that are toxic to plants and may degrade the soil structure (FAO, 2020a). Soluble salts most commonly present are the chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium. Nitrates are present in appreciable quantities only rarely. Sodium and chloride are by far the most dominant ions, particularly in highly saline soils, although calcium and magnesium are usually present in sufficient quantities to meet the nutritional needs of crops. Many saline soils contain appreciable quantities of gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) in the profile (FAO, 1988). Salt that accumulates in soil can come from a number of sources (NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment, 2019): Salinity affects (NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment 2019):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/246d3643-a4aa-40b5-8e77-7ca849c020bf","prefLabel":{"en":"Soil temperature"},"definition":{"en":"The temperature of the soil. This can be measured or modelled at multiple levels within the depth of the soil."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6dfd7021-1293-49ac-b282-79fc5a181542","prefLabel":{"en":"Solar ('11-year') cycle"},"definition":{"en":"A quasi-regular modulation of solar activity with varying amplitude and a period of between 8 and 14 years."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/71da780f-14c5-4311-8425-4a4ebdd24b63","prefLabel":{"en":"Solar activity"},"definition":{"en":"General term collectively describing a variety of magnetic phenomena on the Sun such as sunspots, faculae (bright areas), and flares (emission of high-energy particles). It varies on time scales from minutes to millions of years. The solar cycle, with an average duration of 11 years, is an example of a quasi-regular change in solar activity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d4d29353-ebd5-4aae-997f-0bab1f75624d","prefLabel":{"en":"Solar energy"},"definition":{"en":"Energy from the Sun. Often the phrase is used to mean energy that is captured from solar radiation either as heat, as light that is converted into chemical energy by natural or artificial photosynthesis, or by photovoltaic panels and converted directly into electricity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/42d6354a-ea19-4f3b-8b9f-967e4047f063","prefLabel":{"en":"Solar radiation modification (SRM)"},"definition":{"en":"Refers to a range of radiation modification measures not related to greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation that seek to limit global warming. Most methods involve reducing the amount of incoming solar radiation reaching the surface, but others also act on the longwave radiation budget by reducing optical thickness and cloud lifetime."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/70637a4e-d25e-4e84-9143-913e7b863b81","prefLabel":{"en":"Cirrus cloud thinning (CCT)"},"definition":{"en":"One of several radiation modification approaches to counter the warming caused by greenhouse gases (GHGs). In this approach, it is proposed to reduce the amount of cirrus clouds by injecting ice nucleating substances in the upper troposphere. The reduction in cirrus clouds is expected to increase the amount of longwave cooling to space resulting in a planetary cooling. Although cirrus cloud thinning primarily affects the longwave radiation budget of our planet, it is often identified as one of the solar radiation modification (SRM) approaches in the literature."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cc39d429-84df-4c2b-bbb4-fc91e4d98d40","prefLabel":{"en":"Marine cloud brightening (MCB)"},"definition":{"en":"One of several solar radiation modification (SRM) approaches to increase the planetary albedo. In this approach, it is proposed to inject sea salt aerosols into persistent marine low clouds. This is expected to increase the cloud droplet concentration of these clouds and their reflectivity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3308ec56-9c98-4615-8b5d-75cceab168bb","prefLabel":{"en":"Stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI)"},"definition":{"en":"One of several solar radiation modification (SRM) approaches to increase the planetary albedo. In the approach, it is proposed to inject highly reflective aerosols such as sulphates into the lower stratosphere. This is expected to increase the fraction of solar radiation deflected to space resulting in a planetary cooling."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e1fc4919-a890-4495-aabf-001069fb8f64","prefLabel":{"en":"Solar Storm (Solar Radiation Storm) (S Scale)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Solar energetic particle events,","Solar proton events"]},"definition":{"en":"Solar radiation storms occur when large quantities of charged particles, primarily protons, accelerated by eruptive processes at or near the Sun reach the near-Earth environment (NOAA, 2019).NOAA, 2019. Solar Radiation Storm. Space Weather Prediction Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Accessed 16 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere generally protect life on Earth from this particle radiation, but that shielding depends on latitude, magnetic field strength and direction. In the polar regions, the magnetic field lines intersecting the Earth’s surface allow lower energy particles to penetrate into the atmosphere. Solar radiation storms thus often result in polar cap events (PCA), which occur in limited areas around geomagnetic poles; they may last more than a week (NOAA, 2019). Higher energy particles can penetrate the magnetic field and reach spacecraft orbiting at lower latitudes, in particular the International Space Station. High altitude orbits such as the geosynchronous orbit used by spacecraft delivering many commercial and governmental services are not protected by the magnetic field. A factor of criticality in a radiation storm is the energy spectrum of the solar protons. High-energy protons cause single event upsets in spacecraft electronics and increase the harmful radiation dose of exposed human beings, such as in manned spaceflights. Lower energy protons have a severe impact on the polar ionosphere and affect High Frequency propagation at high latitude. The severity of radiation storms can thus be characterised by the flux of charged particles (typically as a 5-minute average) above a given energy threshold such as 10 or 100 MeV. For example, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) scale characterises a radiation storm as extreme when the 5-minute flux above 10 MeV exceeds 105 particles•s- 1•sr-1•cm-2. In large magnitude solar eruptions, high-energy events may last only a few hours while low-energy events may last up to a week (NOAA, 2019). Solar radiation storms occur when a large-scale magnetic reconfiguration, causing a coronal mass ejection and often an associated solar flare, accelerates charged particles in the solar atmosphere to very high velocities. The most common particles are protons, but ions of other low mass (helium to iron) elements are often present and contribute significantly to radiation damage. All these ions can be accelerated to large fractions of the speed of light. At these velocities, the particles can traverse the 150 million km from the Sun to Earth in just tens of minutes or less. When they reach Earth, the fast-moving ions penetrate the magnetosphere that shields Earth from lower energy charged particles. Once inside the magnetosphere, low energy (<1 GeV) particles are guided down the magnetic field lines and penetrate into the atmosphere near the north and south poles (NOAA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/81327e40-ed5c-4d1c-8e15-5ce27e38244f","prefLabel":{"en":"Source"},"definition":{"en":"Any process or activity which releases a greenhouse gas (GHG), an aerosol or a precursor of a GHG into the atmosphere (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Article 1.9 (UNFCCC, 1992))."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/81b3f993-6eea-42c2-a501-17341c7cfeae","prefLabel":{"en":"South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ)"},"definition":{"en":"A band of low-level convergence, cloudiness and precipitation ranging from the west Pacific warm pool south-eastwards towards French Polynesia. It is one of the most significant features of subtropical Southern Hemisphere climate. It shares some characteristics with the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), but is more extratropical in nature, especially east of the International Date Line."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/20389540-7940-4b16-9d17-aa71cce62dac","prefLabel":{"en":"Spatial and temporal scales"},"definition":{"en":"Climate may vary on a large range of spatial and temporal scales. Spatial scales may range from local (less than 100 000 km2), through regional (100 000 to 10 million km2) to continental (10 to 100 million km2). Temporal scales may range from seasonal to geological (up to hundreds of millions of years)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e6a3c117-63bc-42fb-9d3b-3843faa09b48","prefLabel":{"en":"Spatial planning"},"altLabel":{"en":["City-regional planning","Physical planning","Regional planning","Spatial plan","Territorial planning","Town-regional planning","Urban-regional planning"]},"definition":{"en":"A territory-based process aimed at the establishment of land uses to allow at sustainable development, environmental protection, public health, infrastructure connectivity, economic development, heritage protection, and other measures, in a context of diverse and sometimes conflicting priorities and interests of different stakeholders (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/293e1fe7-feb9-48c2-9ba2-509919048c96","prefLabel":{"en":"Stadial or stade"},"definition":{"en":"A brief period of regional climatic cooling during a glacial or interglacial interval, often characterized by transient glacial advances. Stadials are generally of short duration (hundreds to a few thousand years) compared to glacial or interglacial intervals (lasting many thousands to tens of thousands of years). One example of a regional stadial event is based on millennial scale cooling recorded by oxygen isotope ratios in Greenland ice cores, the so called “Greenland Stadials” (Johnsen et al., 1992)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c52e2586-8248-4cce-9850-b370c5bf04fc","prefLabel":{"en":"Stakeholders"},"definition":{"en":"Persons, organisations, networks or groups with an interest or concern in a topic of interest or in the process and outcomes of a project, research, or policy endeavour (Adapted from\nUNDRR, 2016 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/51a6911c-a401-46b8-bf2b-a6fa90d2e96e","prefLabel":{"en":"Standard"},"definition":{"en":"Set of rules or codes mandating or defining product performance (e.g., grades, dimensions, characteristics, test methods, and rules for use). Product, technology or performance standards establish minimum requirements for affected products or technologies. Standards impose reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with the manufacture or use of the products and/or application of the technology (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4f057fdc-1d18-4034-aad4-e4ecafeed130","prefLabel":{"en":"Standardisation"},"definition":{"en":"Standardisation refers to the systematic process of developing, establishing, and implementing standards (Climateurope2)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Standardisation is a collaborative and iterative process that involves the participation of diverse stakeholders, including experts, industry representatives, and consumers.\n\nThe standardisation process typically involves several steps. This includes: the identification of the need for a standard, which involves identifying the problem or issue that the standard is intended to address, as well as the stakeholders who will be affected by the standard; preparatory work, which involves conducting research, gathering data, and consulting with stakeholders to define the scope, objectives, and requirements of the standard; drafting the standard, which involves developing a draft of the standard, including the technical specifications, guidelines, and requirements for the product, process, or service; consultation and review, which involves soliciting feedback from stakeholders and experts, and revising the draft standard based on their input; and approval and publication, which involves finalising the standard, obtaining approval from relevant organisations or authorities, and publishing the standard for use by stakeholders (Climateurope2).\n\nStandardization of climate services, like those related to disaster risk reduction or food security, can ensure that these services are accessible and usable by all, regardless of their location or background. This involves establishing clear guidelines and benchmarks for the development and delivery of these services (Climateurope 2)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/84806343-3d51-4755-a5f4-82f69f718890","prefLabel":{"en":"Storm tracks"},"definition":{"en":"Originally, a term referring to the tracks of individual cyclonic weather systems, but now often generalized to refer to the main regions where the tracks of extratropical disturbances occur as sequences of low (cyclonic) and high (anticyclonic) pressure systems."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/81cc9d73-b4b7-4696-b7cb-0a5a9c59b068","prefLabel":{"en":"Storytelling"},"definition":{"en":"Storytelling is the vivid description of ideas, beliefs, personal experiences, and life-lessons through stories or narratives that evoke powerful emotions and insights (Serrat, 2017)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d5bc0fbc-a893-41ea-93c5-05408f2b2ec5","prefLabel":{"en":"Stress testing"},"altLabel":{"en":["stress test","stress tests"]},"definition":{"en":"Type of performance efficiency testing conducted to evaluate an asset or system’s performance under conditions beyond specified requirements (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In laboratory conditions stress testing may be used to study the behaviour and performance of a material, structure or system under conditions of a pre-defined risk to evaluate their vulnerability and resilience."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0ec92807-8332-475f-a671-ac5306203cbe","prefLabel":{"en":"Subduction"},"definition":{"en":"Ocean process in which surface waters enter the ocean interior from the surface mixed layer through Ekman pumping and lateral advection. The latter occurs when surface waters are advected to a region where the local surface layer is less dense and therefore must slide below the surface layer, usually with no change in density."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/724c536b-3905-4970-adcb-a3c783b02ce2","prefLabel":{"en":"Subnational actors"},"definition":{"en":"State/provincial, regional, metropolitan and local/municipal governments as well as non-party stakeholders, such as civil society, the private sector, cities and other subnational authorities, local communities and indigenous peoples."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d0bcb199-801f-4f15-9eba-3ab4bb075a3f","prefLabel":{"en":"Subtropical Storm"},"definition":{"en":"A subtropical storm is a subtropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 34 kt (39 mph or 63 km/hr) or more (NOAA, 2019).NOAA, 2019. Glossary of NHC Terms. National Hurricane Center (NHC) and Central Pacific Hurricane Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Accessed 14 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Subtropical cyclone: A non-frontal low-pressure system that has characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones. Like tropical cyclones, they are non-frontal, synoptic-scale cyclones that originate over tropical or subtropical waters and have a closed surface wind circulation about a well-defined centre. In addition, they have organised moderate to deep convection, but lack a central dense overcast. Unlike tropical cyclones, subtropical cyclones derive a significant proportion of their energy from baroclinic sources and are generally cold-core in the upper troposphere, often being associated with an upper-level low or trough. In comparison to tropical cyclones, these systems generally have a radius of maximum winds occurring relatively far from the centre (usually above 60 nmi), and generally have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection (NOAA, 2019). Subtropical depression: A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum sustained surface wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) is 33 kt (38 mph or 62 km/hr) or less (NOAA, 2019)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/99d92e69-61ce-4736-8467-4099e5cd6f72","prefLabel":{"en":"Sufficiency"},"definition":{"en":"A set of measures and daily practices that avoid demand for energy, materials, land and water while delivering human well-being for all within planetary boundaries."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e8cb3cd2-9e41-4a64-9359-93f59a21d152","prefLabel":{"en":"Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)"},"definition":{"en":"SF6, a greenhouse gas (GHG), is mainly used in heavy industry to insulate high-voltage equipment and to assist in the manufacturing of cable-cooling systems and semiconductors."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b7cb1b36-9db0-4ee2-943d-a995607a761c","prefLabel":{"en":"Sunspots"},"definition":{"en":"Dark areas on the Sun where strong magnetic fields reduce the convection, causing a temperature reduction of about 1500 K compared to the surrounding regions. The number of sunspots is higher during periods of higher solar activity and varies in particular with the solar cycle."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c5caa0c2-8c9b-4af9-983d-4ebf02b45d44","prefLabel":{"en":"Supply-side measures"},"definition":{"en":"Policies and programmes for influencing how a certain demand for goods and/or services is met. In the energy sector, supply-side mitigation measures aim at reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions emitted per unit of energy service produced."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f54ad951-9135-4d57-9ff8-37605673857c","prefLabel":{"en":"Sustainability"},"definition":{"en":"A dynamic process that guarantees the persistence of natural and human systems in an equitable manner (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Sustainability can also encompass 'ensuring the persistence of natural and human systems, implying the continuous functioning of ecosystems, the conservation of high biodiversity, the recycling of natural resources and, in the human sector, successful application of justice and equity' (IPCC SROCC, 2019 in Gill et al., 2022)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d22c4c9f-cf8c-4820-bb1e-7dcae6bc3ea0","prefLabel":{"en":"Sustainable development (SD)"},"definition":{"en":"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987) and balances social, economic and environmental concerns (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d3f07556-13f3-4b50-9ff1-97f4d0b2ef47","prefLabel":{"en":"2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development"},"definition":{"en":"A UN resolution in September 2015 adopting a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity in a new global development framework anchored in 17 Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2015 in IPCC AR6, 2023)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8378fd1e-41a1-49c2-80db-7e531351ebf2","prefLabel":{"en":"Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)"},"definition":{"en":"The 17 global goals for development for all countries established by the United Nations through a participatory process and elaborated in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including ending poverty and hunger; ensuring health and well-being, education, gender equality, clean water and energy, and decent work; building and ensuring resilient and sustainable infrastructure, cities and consumption; reducing inequalities; protecting land and water ecosystems; promoting peace, justice and partnerships; and taking urgent action on climate change."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e420fe93-64e6-4cac-9e1c-1d1c400ea2cf","prefLabel":{"en":"Sustainable intensification (of agriculture)"},"definition":{"en":"Increasing yields from the same area of land while decreasing negative environmental impacts of agricultural production and increasing the provision of environmental services (CGIAR, 2019). [Note: This definition is based on the concept of meeting demand from a finite land area, but it is scale-dependent. Sustainable intensification at a given scale (e.g., global or national) may require a decrease in production intensity at smaller scales and in particular places (often associated with previous, unsustainable, intensification) to achieve sustainability (Garnett et al., 2013).]"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/36dd49ee-cfe4-42be-a2db-e92b30a3c8ad","prefLabel":{"en":"Sympagic"},"definition":{"en":"Organisms and habitats related to the sea ice, analogous to pelagic (water column) or benthic (seafloor)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b5e890c1-8af4-4a42-ac48-da67de1ae773","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic change"},"definition":{"en":"Systemic change is about transformation in the structure, dynamics and relationships of a system (DRI Lexicon Project Expert Panel, 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In the context of disaster resilience of infrastructure, systemic change implies delving behind immediate problems or symptoms and tackling underlying causes to deliver tangible and enduring benefits with significant impacts on the material conditions, going beyond those directly involved in a given initiative (adapted from IDS, 2014 in DRI Lexicon Project, 2022).\n\nSystemic change differs from Systematic change in several aspects: systemic changes describe what relates to, or affects an entire system, whereas systematic changes involve a method or plan, arranged in or comprising an ordered system. Systematic changes are necessary to drive systemic change. Both words systemic and systematic are adjectives that stem from the noun system. Systematic is the older and more common word (DRI Lexicon Project, 2022)."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5eaac414-08ae-4ac9-a135-4caa913addc2","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic climate risks"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Systemic climate risks can be referred to as the possibility of interaction effects and feedback loops between risks and systems, rather than a hierarchical structure as cascading risks might suggest (Gaupp et al., 2020; Puma et al., 2015; Bednar-Friedl et al., 2022)"},"scopeNote":{"en":["While the term “cascading” is more frequently used in the industry context, the term “systemic” is more frequent in the agriculture context."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/daa9bee2-936b-4cf6-9e75-0265f28d8be0","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic resilience"},"altLabel":{"en":["system resilience"]},"definition":{"en":"Property of an infrastructure system that manifests when the larger system is organized in such a way that it can provide agreed critical services (power, heat, communications, mobility, water, and waste management) despite the impacts on its constituent systems, networks and assets due to a variety of hazard(s) (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["\"Larger system\" may refer to transboundary, national or sub-national infrastructure depending on the jurisdiction."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/22d26607-ad7d-48cf-b336-658d71c26ec6","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic risk"},"definition":{"en":"In the context of infrastructure, systemic risk is a cumulative risk to a system as an outcome of physical, biological, social, environmental, or technological shocks and stresses. These may be internal/external to the system. Impact on individual components of the system (assets, networks and sub-systems) becomes systemic due to interdependence/interactions between them (DRI Lexicon, 2023).\n\nRisk of a ‘System’ due to interaction effects of elements of a system (UNDRR, 2022 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Systemic risk can be seen as a feature of systems at all possible scales – global, national, regional and local – with varying system boundaries depending on the context.\n\nInteractions within a system can either aggravate or contain the overall effect of the constituent parts, creating the potential for cascading impacts on system elements far from the first impact. See also \"\"Feedback loops\"\".\n\nA key attribute of systemic risk is that it can transgress spatial and sectoral boundaries with other systems, sectors and geographical regions, thus leading to cascading effects."]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5eaac414-08ae-4ac9-a135-4caa913addc2","prefLabel":{"en":"Systemic climate risks"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic climate risk"]},"definition":{"en":"Systemic climate risks can be referred to as the possibility of interaction effects and feedback loops between risks and systems, rather than a hierarchical structure as cascading risks might suggest (Gaupp et al., 2020; Puma et al., 2015; Bednar-Friedl et al., 2022)"},"scopeNote":{"en":["While the term “cascading” is more frequently used in the industry context, the term “systemic” is more frequent in the agriculture context."]}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e21fb59b-4e56-456a-a16f-8c4ca822bc69","prefLabel":{"en":"Systems of Innovation (SI)"},"definition":{"en":"The set of public and private sector organisations (i.e., formally organised entities such as firms and universities; ‘actors’) and institutions, whose activities and interactions generate, modify and deploy new technologies. The SI approach has been used to understand and analyse innovation at the national, regional, and technological levels, and in transnational contexts (Lundvall, 1988, 1992)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/52d58acc-a42f-4024-8282-868c6bf6541f","prefLabel":{"en":"Systems thinking"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic perspective","Systems thinking approach","systems approach. systems thinking","systems based thinking"]},"definition":{"en":"An approach to problem-solving or a focus on the overall system i.e. interactions between elements within a ‘System’ (or Systems) (adapted from: Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fd45cdaa-cfb7-4807-99a6-e3aa7fbd7db4","prefLabel":{"en":"Accumulation"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fc501a7b-2d4f-4f0a-8e6a-c0fb1d19437f","prefLabel":{"en":"Complexity"},"definition":{"en":"A causal chain with many intervening variables and feedback loops that do not allow the understanding or prediction of the system’s behaviour on the basis of each component’s behaviour (Aven, 2019 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4ac54ae6-df35-4624-827e-a3928bffe39f","prefLabel":{"en":"Interdependencies"},"definition":{"en":"The points of interaction among human and physical systems. Climate change not only alters risks (direct and indirect) to individual sectors, but also alters the nature and magnitude of these risks through the interdependencies that emerge from the dynamics of large-scale, highly interconnected complex systems. A risk assessment that does not address such interconnections, and the possible loss or creation of interconnections, could lead to the miscalculation of risks. Furthermore, there are potential missed opportunities for adaptation, for over or under adaptation, or maladaptation. Interdependencies may be divided into six different groups; (1) functional interdependencies, (2) physical interdependencies, (3) geographic interdependencies, (4) economic and financial interdependencies, (5) institutional and policy interdependencies and (6) social interdependencies (Dawson, 2015)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a95bc653-77c2-4525-87bf-1f3cbc286eb3","prefLabel":{"en":"Leverage points"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic leverage points"]},"definition":{"en":"Places within a complex system (a corporation, an economy, a living body, a city, an ecosystem) where a small shift in one thing can produce big changes in everything (Meadows, 1999)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/da885557-ec7f-416e-8b2e-38a3356fa426","prefLabel":{"en":"Lock-in"},"definition":{"en":"A situation in which the future development of a system, including infrastructure, technologies, investments, institutions and behavioural norms, is determined or constrained (‘locked in’) by historical developments (AR6 IPCC, 2023).\n\nAlternatively, it can be defined as early actions or decisions that involve long lifetimes or path dependency, which will potentially increase future risk or vulnerability and that are difficult or costly to reverse later (irreversibility). This can be from a ‘business-as-usual’ action or decision, from a lack of an action or decision, or from a maladaptive action or decision (CCRA3 Technical Team, 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a602c114-c402-4b7e-98cd-a3055cac4985","prefLabel":{"en":"Non-linearity"},"definition":{"en":"A process is called non-linear when there is no simple proportional relation between cause and effect (IPCC AR6, 2023). In other words, a situation where the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable is not predictable from a straight line. Changes in the output do not change in direct proportion to changes in any of the inputs (Hayes, 2021 in Gill et al., 2022).\n\nThe climate system contains many such non-linear processes, resulting in a system with potentially very complex behaviour. Such complexity may lead to abrupt climate change and tipping points (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3ac34b8b-9c98-45db-ad8d-91e46ff473fd","prefLabel":{"en":"Path dependence"},"definition":{"en":"The generic situation where decisions, events, or outcomes at one point in time constrain adaptation, mitigation or other actions or options at a later point in time."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/20e15ed5-572a-44b8-8aca-47955f970df1","prefLabel":{"en":"Socio-technical transitions"},"definition":{"en":"Where technological change is associated with social systems and the two are inextricably linked."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e3865853-ec53-4f60-af2b-c41b40bff425","prefLabel":{"en":"Solution space"},"definition":{"en":"The set of biophysical, cultural, socio-economic and political-institutional dimensions within which opportunities and constraints determine why, how, when and who acts to reduce climate risks. Within these dimensions, there are ’hard’ (unsurpassable) limits and ’soft’(surpassable) limits. The boundaries of the solution space are path dependent, contested and in constant flux (Haasnoot et. al. 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8acea094-23da-483a-9340-9535b1d42623","prefLabel":{"en":"Spill-over effect"},"altLabel":{"en":["Spillover effect","Spillover effects"]},"definition":{"en":"The effects of domestic or sector mitigation measures on other countries or sectors. Spill-over effects can be positive or negative and include effects on trade, (carbon) leakage, transfer of innovations, and diffusion of environmentally sound technology and other issues."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f53f11b2-1089-4686-86e9-ca79c69a168a","prefLabel":{"en":"System"},"altLabel":{"en":["system","systems"]},"definition":{"en":"A set of (partly) interconnected elements (Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/80651b6b-1c4c-4614-b1c7-6cd3f0593643","prefLabel":{"en":"Abrupt change"},"definition":{"en":"A change in the system that is substantially faster than the typical rate of the changes in its history (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/51bb80c9-bd1c-4ae9-a51b-a3d0b57d4c1c","prefLabel":{"en":"Acceptability of policy or system change"},"definition":{"en":"The extent to which a policy or system change is evaluated unfavourably or favourably, or rejected or supported, by members of the general public (public acceptability) or politicians or governments (political acceptability). Acceptability may vary from totally unacceptable/fully rejected to totally acceptable/fully supported; individuals may differ in how acceptable policies or system changes are believed to be (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d47d12a0-9476-4d3e-971f-c586be46c3dd","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate system"},"definition":{"en":"The global system consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate system changes in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations, orbital forcing, and anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-use change."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4f90f73f-6705-4f0a-b717-233dfc1f08c6","prefLabel":{"en":"Abrupt climate change"},"definition":{"en":"A large-scale abrupt change in the climate system that takes place over a few decades or less, persists (or is anticipated to persist) for at least a few decades and causes substantial impacts in human and/or natural systems (IPCC AR5, 2014)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/db762125-8b05-4d5c-964d-befe2c3407a4","prefLabel":{"en":"Decision support system"},"definition":{"en":"An information system that aids an organization in decision-making activities that require judgment, determination, and a sequence of actions (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["The information system assists managers and leaders by analyzing data and accumulating information that can help to solve problems and make decisions.\n\nA decision support system is either human-supervised, automated, or a combination of both.\n\nIn the context of disaster resilient infrastructure, a decision support system can accelerate decisions and actions in time-sensitive situations."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9142ee2d-d0e3-4188-a514-3bf0c6919dd1","prefLabel":{"en":"Downgraded infrastructure systems"},"altLabel":{"en":["Downgraded infrastructure system"]},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure that is incapable of efficiently and securely performing to the intended standards for which it was designed. This can be due to poor implementation or construction, wear and tear, age, usage, and/or lack of maintenance which may affect performance especially in the face of shocks and stresses."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Poor performance of infrastructure is typically categorized as downgraded through a process of evaluation according to established norms and standards.\n\nThe pace of downgrading can be accelerated by (i) social factors, (ii) governance mechanisms, (iii) natural decay and deterioration, (iv) poor detailing and design, (v) lack of maintenance. See also “Infrastructure maintenance\".\n\nIn some contexts, infrastructure can be downgraded for reasons other than poor performance, e.g., reclassification of a highway from one type to another. \n\nUpgraded infrastructure is infrastructure that meets a higher performance standard, often through improvements, expansions, or renewals to parts of an infrastructure system."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8dc9032c-7874-4546-af4c-fdc61d7f18cc","prefLabel":{"en":"Dynamical system"},"definition":{"en":"A process or set of processes whose evolution in time is governed by a set of deterministic physical laws. The climate system is a dynamical system."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cbf97925-4585-403f-a231-c0b46fc93736","prefLabel":{"en":"Ecosystem"},"definition":{"en":"A functional unit consisting of living organisms, their non-living environment and the interactions within and between them. The components included in a given ecosystem and its spatial boundaries depend on the purpose for which the ecosystem is defined: in some cases they are relatively sharp, while in others they are diffuse. Ecosystem boundaries can change over time. Ecosystems are nested within other ecosystems, and their scale can range from very small to the entire biosphere. In the current era, most ecosystems either contain people as key organisms or are influenced by the effects of human activities in their environment (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/77795cfd-990e-44a8-8aa2-16b423cfcfc8","prefLabel":{"en":"Biodiversity"},"definition":{"en":"Biodiversity or biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (UN, 1992)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7b479817-f533-4774-b258-a9687fb32d8a","prefLabel":{"en":"Beta diversity"},"definition":{"en":"The change in species composition between different areas (spatial turnover) or times (temporal turnover) due to habitat and environmental heterogeneity"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/07bbc103-9fc2-433b-a355-e8b8def859d2","prefLabel":{"en":"Biodiversity hotspots"},"definition":{"en":"Biodiversity hotspots are geographic areas exceptionally rich in species, ecologically distinct, and often contain geographically-rare-endemic species. They are thus priorities for nature conservation action."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c9257a18-83ae-4f22-b7c2-463a99485b59","prefLabel":{"en":"Biodiversity Loss"},"definition":{"en":"Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction of any aspect of biological diversity (i.e., diversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels) in a particular area through death (including extinction), destruction or manual removal; it can refer to many scales, from global extinctions to population extinctions, resulting in decreased total diversity at the same scale (IPBES, no date).IPBES, no date. Glossary: Biodiversity loss. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). Accessed 20 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Human actions currently threaten more species with global extinction than ever before. An average of around 25% of species in assessed animal and plant groups are threatened, suggesting that around 1 million species already face extinction, many within decades, unless action is taken to reduce the intensity of drivers of biodiversity loss. Without such action, there will be a further acceleration in the global rate of species extinction, which is already at least tens to hundreds of times higher than it has averaged over the past 10 million years (IPBES, 2019:11-12)."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/07bbc103-9fc2-433b-a355-e8b8def859d2","prefLabel":{"en":"Biodiversity hotspots"},"definition":{"en":"Biodiversity hotspots are geographic areas exceptionally rich in species, ecologically distinct, and often contain geographically-rare-endemic species. They are thus priorities for nature conservation action."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bbcf23c5-ebe7-4c10-87bb-dbaf8c270d5b","prefLabel":{"en":"Coral reef"},"definition":{"en":"An underwater ecosystem characterised by structure-building stony corals. Warm-water coral reefs occur in shallow seas, mostly in the tropics, with the corals (animals) containing algae (plants) that depend on light and relatively stable temperature conditions. Cold-water coral reefs occur throughout the world, mostly at water depths of 50–500 m. In both kinds of reef, living corals frequently grow on older, dead material, predominantly made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Both warm and cold-water coral reefs support high biodiversity of fish and other groups, and are considered to be especially vulnerable to climate change."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8f15ed1e-9c86-4699-bb36-016354ce3cfc","prefLabel":{"en":"Ecosystem services"},"definition":{"en":"Ecological processes or functions having monetary or non-monetary value to individuals or society at large. These are frequently classified as (1) supporting services such as productivity or biodiversity maintenance, (2) provisioning services such as food or fibre, (3) regulating services such as climate regulation or carbon sequestration, and (4) cultural services such as tourism or spiritual and aesthetic appreciation (IPCC AR6, 2023)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/04219cef-0d0d-4a1a-93b0-a11a77a05df7","prefLabel":{"en":"Endemic species"},"definition":{"en":"Plants and animals that are only found in one geographic region."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/601079cb-2c72-4d0c-9f27-a5a3efd94453","prefLabel":{"en":"Forest line"},"definition":{"en":"The upper limit of the closed upper montane forest or forest at high latitudes. It is less elevated or less poleward than the tree line."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d9da3d59-208f-41b7-bcd0-59f147e77d6f","prefLabel":{"en":"Invasive species"},"altLabel":{"en":["Alien invasive species,","Alien species,","Forest pests (FAO, 2018a)","Invasive alien species"]},"definition":{"en":"‘Invasive species’, also known as ‘alien invasive species’, are species whose introduction, establishment and spread into new areas threaten ecosystems, habitats or other species and cause social, economic or environmental harm, or harm to human health (FAO, 2007:82).FAO, 2007. Invasive species. In: State of the World’s Forests. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 10 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Forest invasive species occur in all major taxonomic groups from micro-organisms to mammals. The invasive species include bacteria, fungi, flatworms, nematodes, insects and arachnids, molluscs, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, grasses, plants, trees and shrubs (FAO, 2009a). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 2009 reported that (FAO, 2009b): Globally, many forests are continually subject to severe outbreaks of invasive species, which can have huge environmental and sociocultural impacts. Threat of forest invasive species is rising with increasing global trade and travel and is exacerbated by impacts of climate change. Managing invasive species and avoiding new introductions of species with known potential to become invasive require coordinated efforts by many actors, nationally, regionally and globally (FAO and UNEP, 2020). It is very important to protect the world’s forests from harm. The global forest area is just over 4 billion ha, which represents 31% of the total land area (FAO, 2010). Forests are important global resources that provide a wide range of environmental, economic and social benefits. They provide a variety of valuable products, such as timber, fuelwood, fibre and other wood and non-wood forest products, and contribute to the livelihoods of rural communities. They provide vital ecosystem services, such as combating desertification, protecting watersheds, regulating climate, and maintaining biodiversity, and play an important role in preserving social and cultural values (FAO, 2011).","Invasive species include species, subspecies or lower taxa of invertebrates, plants, microorganisms and vertebrates non-native (alien or exotic or non-indigenous) to a particular ecosystem and whose human mediated or unintentional introduction and spread causes, or are likely to cause, socio-cultural, economic or environmental harm or harm to human health (FAO, 2007). An alien species is a species, subspecies or lower taxon, introduced outside its natural past or present distribution; it includes any part, gametes, seeds, eggs, or propagules of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce (UNEP, 2002). Increasing international trade and human mobility, exacerbated by impacts of climate change, have increased the introduction of plant and animal species into new areas where they have become invasive (FAO, 2020). Estimates of the full costs of biological invasions are rare because of the difficulty in assessing the costs of impacts on biodiversity, ecosystem functions and human health, or other indirect costs such as the impact of control measures. The costs of invasive species to the forest sector have not been studied on a global scale. However, based on a study of six countries (Australia, Brazil, India, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States of America), it was estimated that as many as 480,000 alien species have been introduced in agriculture and forestry worldwide, with an annual cost of more than USD 1.4 trillion (FAO, 2007). Invasive plant and animal species are now considered one of the most important causes of biodiversity loss, especially in many island countries (CBD, 2009). Preventing and reducing the harmful effects of invasive species requires an approach that incorporates biological, ecological and social sciences, economics, policy analysis and engineering. National efforts should include early warning systems, eradication and control, as well as increased awareness and political leadership. Global, regional and bilateral efforts include standards and guidelines, monitoring and assessment, and information and action networks (FAO, 2007). Numerous international and regional programmes and instruments, binding and non-binding, have been developed to address the problem of invasive species (FAO, 2007). Different countries have different approaches – two of note are the Invasive Species Definition Clarification and Guidance prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 2006) and the Australian Weed Strategy (Australian Government, 2016)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bc633fee-8b0a-4921-bc2b-a4fc4d82019c","prefLabel":{"en":"Invasive Weeds"},"altLabel":{"en":["Noxious plants"]},"definition":{"en":"An invasive weed is an alien species that by its establishment or spread has become injurious to plants, or that by risk analysis is shown to be potentially injurious to plants (adapted from FAO, 2017).FAO, 2017. Glossary of phytosanitary terms. ISPM 5. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 11 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Invasive weeds are plants growing in agricultural lands and natural habitats where they are not wanted and where they compete with plants grown or natural resources causing significant economic or environmental damage. The term also includes any plant that can directly or indirectly injure or cause damage to crops, livestock, poultry, natural habitats or other interests of agriculture, irrigation, navigation or the natural landscapes (USDA, 2016). In April 2001, the International Collection of Microorganisms from Plants (ICMP) recognised that under the International Plant Protection Convention’s existing mandate, to take account of environmental concerns, further clarification should include consideration of the following points relating to the potential environmental risks of pests: reduction or elimination of endangered (or threatened) native plant species; reduction or elimination of a keystone plant species (a species which plays a major role in the maintenance of an ecosystem); reduction or elimination of a plant species which is a major component of a native ecosystem; causing a change to plant biological diversity in such a way as to result in ecosystem destabilization; and resulting in control, eradication or management programmes that would be needed if a quarantine pest was introduced, and impacts of such programmes (e.g., pesticides, non-indigenous predators or parasites) on biological diversity (FAO, 2009). The Convention on Biodiversity states that invasive plant species have been reported among inter alia seaweeds, trees, shrubs, vines, forbs and grasses. The indicative economic impacts of some invasive alien species are reported to be as follows: the impact of knapweed (Centaurea spp.) and leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) on the economy of three US states is USD 40.5 million per year (direct costs) and USD 89 million as indirect costs (UNEP, 2001)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a6ff441a-b92a-4560-b289-edc73255fb03","prefLabel":{"en":"Native species"},"definition":{"en":"Indigenous species of animals or plants that naturally occur in a given region or ecosystem. Under climate change, many species colonise new areas where they may become native over time (following IPBES 2019)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c4548efa-eb7e-4297-8f80-c43f83a81ec5","prefLabel":{"en":"Peat"},"definition":{"en":"Soft, porous or compressed, sedentary deposit of which a substantial portion is partly decomposed plant material with high water content in the natural state (up to about 90%)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9910a20b-5c01-4c21-a210-c778d7dc40a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Peatlands"},"definition":{"en":"Peatlands are wetland ecosystems where soils are dominated by peat. In peatlands, net primary production exceeds organic matter decomposition as a result of waterlogged conditions, which leads to the accumulation of peat."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/67e2f49e-7fc5-4fa9-aeef-b6ecf8495c7d","prefLabel":{"en":"Plasticity (biology)"},"definition":{"en":"Change in organismal trait values in response to an environmental cue and which does not require change in underlying DNA sequence."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eba4afe2-743d-4e8a-82ac-0ce7edb5a679","prefLabel":{"en":"Tree line"},"definition":{"en":"The upper limit of tree growth in mountains or at high latitudes. It is more elevated or more poleward than the forest line."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0b56c5c7-332e-4311-854e-688deb1cc52b","prefLabel":{"en":"Energy system"},"definition":{"en":"The energy system comprises all components related to the production, conversion, delivery and use of energy."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d33b4a0-7889-4b73-b55b-a550e1f8c357","prefLabel":{"en":"Food system"},"definition":{"en":"All the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, and the output of these activities, including socio-economic and environmental outcomes (HLPE, 2017). [Note: Whilst there is a global food system (encompassing the totality of global production and consumption), each location’s food system is unique, being defined by that place’s mix of food produced locally, nationally, regionally or globally.]"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a7bd1c6-9f8b-41df-9024-b1f973b18a3b","prefLabel":{"en":"Food loss and waste"},"definition":{"en":"‘The decrease in quantity or quality of food’. Food waste is part of food loss and refers to discarding or alternative (non-food) use of food that is safe and nutritious for human consumption along the entire food supply chain, from primary production to end household consumer level. Food waste is recognised as a distinct part of food loss because the drivers that generate it and the solutions to it are different from those of food losses (FAO, 2015)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5903814a-40b6-4eb8-89ef-b37511144129","prefLabel":{"en":"Human system"},"definition":{"en":"Any system in which human organisations and institutions play a major role. Often, but not always, the term is synonymous with society or social system. Systems such as agricultural systems, urban systems, political systems, technological systems and economic systems are all human systems in the sense applied in this report."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d35d6230-09cd-4cbe-8619-507efb21231a","prefLabel":{"en":"Economy"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/75b7e100-a28c-4871-b130-9257d81ed12e","prefLabel":{"en":"Circular economy"},"definition":{"en":"A system with minimal input and operational losses of materials and energy through extensive reduce, reuse, recycling, and recovery activities. Ten strategies for circularity include: Refuse, Rethink, Reduce, Reuse, Repair, Refurbish, Remanufacture, Repurpose, Recycle, Recover."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9c05f523-216f-4a19-870b-de37e526617f","prefLabel":{"en":"Livelihood"},"definition":{"en":"The resources used and the activities undertaken in order for people to live. Livelihoods are usually determined by the entitlements and assets to which people have access. Such assets can be categorised as human, social, natural, physical or financial."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b3d00985-4344-453a-aec8-90fa46a51887","prefLabel":{"en":"Sharing economy."},"definition":{"en":"A system which allows people to share goods and services by enabling collaborative use, access or ownership."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8d33b4a0-7889-4b73-b55b-a550e1f8c357","prefLabel":{"en":"Food system"},"definition":{"en":"All the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, and the output of these activities, including socio-economic and environmental outcomes (HLPE, 2017). [Note: Whilst there is a global food system (encompassing the totality of global production and consumption), each location’s food system is unique, being defined by that place’s mix of food produced locally, nationally, regionally or globally.]"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9a7bd1c6-9f8b-41df-9024-b1f973b18a3b","prefLabel":{"en":"Food loss and waste"},"definition":{"en":"‘The decrease in quantity or quality of food’. Food waste is part of food loss and refers to discarding or alternative (non-food) use of food that is safe and nutritious for human consumption along the entire food supply chain, from primary production to end household consumer level. Food waste is recognised as a distinct part of food loss because the drivers that generate it and the solutions to it are different from those of food losses (FAO, 2015)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d57fd815-3f0d-40d1-8b95-fd4d9864dfc2","prefLabel":{"en":"Human mobility"},"definition":{"en":"The permanent or semi-permanent move by a person for at least 1 year and involving crossing an administrative, but not necessarily a national, border."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba3d3113-392c-42e7-8f45-60d82fea2b3b","prefLabel":{"en":"Migration (of humans)"},"definition":{"en":"Movement of a person or a group of persons, either across an international border, or within a State. It is a population movement, encompassing any kind of movement of people, whatever its length, composition and causes; it includes migration of refugees, displaced persons, economic migrants, and persons moving for other purposes, including family reunification (IOM, 2018)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1e509435-f8b3-4d79-8723-698934845f45","prefLabel":{"en":"Migrant"},"definition":{"en":"Any person who is moving or has moved across an international border or within a State away from his/her habitual place of residence, regardless of (1) the person’s legal status; (2) whether the movement is voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is (IOM, 2018)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/74de1032-76aa-4ba1-b3a1-c900dc308f52","prefLabel":{"en":"Services"},"definition":{"en":"Activities that help satisfy human wants or needs. While they usually involve relationships between producers and consumers, services are less tangible and less storable than goods since they represent flows not stocks, and when their regeneration conditions are protected they may be reused over time."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/fdcab020-8c99-4549-a816-d1eca5b4e2d1","prefLabel":{"en":"Direct and indirect services"},"definition":{"en":"Direct Services: Services (e.g., passenger mobility) required by end-users (consumers).Indirect services: Services required (e.g., goods transport, manufacturing) for provisioning systems of direct services."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/631ab8f9-b6c3-444a-9d77-c30374d8f9cd","prefLabel":{"en":"Disruption and loss of services"},"definition":{"en":"A situation whereby access to infrastructure services is interrupted temporarily or lost, following damage or destruction of individual assets or networks or the breakdown in the system as a whole (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/625ef8ac-e779-464c-abfa-52ffd8e7c5a7","prefLabel":{"en":"Environmental services"}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6ae18619-346b-45de-8a92-ca78b80804fc","prefLabel":{"en":"Settlements"},"definition":{"en":"Places of concentrated human habitation. Settlements can range from isolated rural villages to urban regions with significant global influence. They can include formally planned and informal or illegal habitation and related infrastructure."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a19fef8d-7ce6-49d4-b1d9-7cd23dcd0266","prefLabel":{"en":"City region"},"definition":{"en":"The areal extent of an individual city's material associations and economic or political influence. The city region concept accepts that rural livelihoods and land uses can be incorporated within the functional activities of a city. This will include dormitory settlements, sources for critical inputs of water, some food, and waste disposal."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7a46aa5e-0e0d-4f86-a4c9-2fd03a6cf3e3","prefLabel":{"en":"Informal settlement"},"definition":{"en":"A term given to settlements or residential areas that by at least one criterion fall outside official rules and regulations. Most informal settlements have poor housing (with widespread use of temporary materials) and are developed on land that is occupied illegally with high levels of overcrowding. In most such settlements, provision for safe water, sanitation, drainage, paved roads and basic services is inadequate or lacking. The term ‘slum’ is often used for informal settlements, although it is misleading as many informal settlements develop into good quality residential areas, especially where governments support such development."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba22e253-5625-4567-8df9-e5088a58c463","prefLabel":{"en":"Peri-urban areas"},"definition":{"en":"Dynamic transition zones that have intense interaction between rural and urban economies, activities, households, and lifestyles. Neither fully rural or urban (Seto et al., 2010)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f91c32b9-3184-4640-9c36-cdd1899db7a1","prefLabel":{"en":"Planned relocation (of humans)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Resettlement"]},"definition":{"en":"A form of human mobility response in the face of sea level rise and related impacts. Planned relocation is typically initiated, supervised and implemented from national to local level and involves small communities and individual assets but may also involve large populations. Also termed resettlement, managed retreat or managed realignment."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2aa769a9-07f2-4f39-bfd9-70b961fd59e6","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban"},"definition":{"en":"The categorisation of areas as 'urban' by government statistical departments is generally based either on population size, population density, economic base, provision of services, or some combination of the above. Urban systems are networks and nodes of intensive interaction and exchange including capital, culture, and material objects. Urban areas exist on a continuum with rural areas and tend to exhibit higher levels of complexity, higher populations and population density, intensity of capital investment, and a preponderance of secondary (processing) and tertiary (service) sector industries. The extent and intensity of these features varies significantly within and between urban areas. Urban places and systems are open with much movement and exchange between more rural areas as well as other urban regions. Urban areas can be globally interconnected facilitating rapid flows between them – of capital investment, of ideas and culture, human migration, and disease."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/56d62584-ac5b-44f7-a293-e703d39a5a5b","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban Systems"},"definition":{"en":"Urban systems refer to two interconnected systems-first, the comprehensive collections of city elements with multiple dimensions and characteristics: a) encompass physical, built, socioeconomic-technical, political, and ecological subsystems; b) integrate social agent/constituency/processes with physical structure and processes; and c) exist within broader spatial and temporal scales and governance and institutional contexts; and second, the global system of cities and towns."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a98f8bb3-11d7-4e64-8ae4-063069d2497a","prefLabel":{"en":"Linear systems"},"altLabel":{"en":["Linear system"]},"definition":{"en":"Linear systems are characterized by surveyable components sequentially arranged in a way that is fairly easy to follow and comprehend. As systems grow, both in size and number of functions, they become more complex and demanding to operate. Ties to other systems will add to the incomprehensibility, as does operating in hostile environments (Aall et al., 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5fb5574a-4ed4-473c-b099-2ad29a10ab08","prefLabel":{"en":"Natural systems"},"definition":{"en":"The dynamic physical, physicochemical and biological components of the Earth system that would operate independently of human activities."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/37a81dc6-0a84-4606-9599-52bc7cc94aaf","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate refugium"},"definition":{"en":"A climate refugium is a geographic area that has had a stable climate on evolutionary time scales, or that is projected to have a stable climate into the future."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/57dca12b-abbe-425c-bb7d-4fca6078afe7","prefLabel":{"en":"Refugium"},"definition":{"en":"A refugium is a geographic area where a population found safety from some threat to its existence, for example, climate refugia or glacial refugia (refuge from glaciations)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/424dee31-2f41-4b17-aaf2-535c7f683f11","prefLabel":{"en":"Social-ecological systems"},"definition":{"en":"An integrated system that includes human societies and ecosystems, in which humans are part of nature. The functions of such a system arise from the interactions and interdependence of the social and ecological subsystems. The system’s structure is characterized by reciprocal feedbacks, emphasising that humans must be seen as a part of, not apart from, nature. This definition builds from Arctic Council (2016) and Berkes and Folke (1998)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b5f887c0-571f-4496-94e2-0271e3b02cc4","prefLabel":{"en":"System of systems"},"definition":{"en":"Refers to the integrated functioning of several independent sub-systems connected by layers of interdependence (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["In this approach, sub-systems are independently useful and can be operated stand alone, independent of the rest of the system of systems and regardless of the physical proximity or the specific sectoral service they deliver.\n\nResilience of individual infrastructure assets and sub-systems should be viewed in the context of the larger system of systems they comprise. Resilience of the system of systems is dependent on the resilience of the sub-systems as well as the critical nodes of interdependence between sub-systems."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/56d62584-ac5b-44f7-a293-e703d39a5a5b","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban Systems"},"definition":{"en":"Urban systems refer to two interconnected systems-first, the comprehensive collections of city elements with multiple dimensions and characteristics: a) encompass physical, built, socioeconomic-technical, political, and ecological subsystems; b) integrate social agent/constituency/processes with physical structure and processes; and c) exist within broader spatial and temporal scales and governance and institutional contexts; and second, the global system of cities and towns."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/33811146-806a-4b68-bd7c-8b52271f3d49","prefLabel":{"en":"Wicked problem"},"altLabel":{"en":["wicked problem","wicked problems"]},"definition":{"en":"A problem that is categorized by a great number of uncertainties. These include: on the stakeholders involved, the boundaries of the problem, long term organisational developments and responsibilities, amongst others (adapted from Wijnmalen et al., 2015 in RESIN glossary, 2016)."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5b084be2-661e-4b7b-9573-87b63ee97b32","prefLabel":{"en":"Transformation"},"definition":{"en":"A change in the fundamental attributes of natural and human systems."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bb8416bc-cc1f-4927-863b-d470c8bf3614","prefLabel":{"en":"Deliberate transformations"},"definition":{"en":"A profound shift towards sustainability, envisioned and intended by at least some societal actors, facilitated by changes in individual and collective values and behaviours, and a fairer balance of political, cultural, and institutional power in society."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c115fb70-f5c0-4948-b9a4-093c51a134cd","prefLabel":{"en":"Societal (social) transformations"},"definition":{"en":"A change in the fundamental attributes of human systems advanced by societal actors"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/f7561269-8cc6-4605-94ca-e16e35a7f688","prefLabel":{"en":"Transformative change"},"definition":{"en":"A system-wide change that requires more than technological change through consideration of social and economic factors that, with technology, can bring about rapid change at scale."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/99fc38a5-2399-4060-a2c8-5ff0255572dd","prefLabel":{"en":"Transformation pathway"},"definition":{"en":"The trajectory taken over time to meet different goals for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, atmospheric concentrations, or global mean surface temperature change that implies a set of economic, technological, and behavioural changes. This can encompass changes in the way energy and infrastructure is used and produced, natural resources are managed, institutions are set up, and in the pace and direction of technological change (TC)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d90b43bd-bbae-44c2-93af-ce72216944fb","prefLabel":{"en":"Transition"},"definition":{"en":"The process of changing from one state or condition to another in a given period of time. Transition can occur in individuals, firms, cities, regions and nations, and can be based on incremental or transformative change."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9786f40d-da40-4e8c-9ac5-3608dddaaa0d","prefLabel":{"en":"Just transitions"},"definition":{"en":"A set of principles, processes and practices that aim to ensure that no people, workers, places, sectors, countries or regions are left behind in the transition from a high-carbon to a low-carbon economy. It stresses the need for targeted and proactive measures from governments, agencies and authorities to ensure that any negative social, environmental or economic impacts of economy-wide transitions are minimised, while benefits are maximised for those disproportionally affected. Key principles of just transitions include: respect and dignity for vulnerable groups; fairness in energy access and use, social dialogue and democratic consultation with relevant stakeholders; the creation of decent jobs; social protection; and rights at work. Just transitions could include fairness in energy, land use and climate planning and decision-making processes; economic diversification based on low-carbon investments; realistic training/retraining programs that lead to decent work; gender-specific policies that promote equitable outcomes; the fostering of international cooperation and coordinated multilateral actions; and the eradication of poverty. Lastly, just transitions may embody the redressing of past harms and perceived injustices (ILO 2015; UNFCCC 2016)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/20e15ed5-572a-44b8-8aca-47955f970df1","prefLabel":{"en":"Socio-technical transitions"},"definition":{"en":"Where technological change is associated with social systems and the two are inextricably linked."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d2f334f3-1f20-461d-892b-b8b772587598","prefLabel":{"en":"Systems view"},"altLabel":{"en":["Systemic view"]},"definition":{"en":"A systemic view is the view that all systems are composed of interrelated subsystems. A whole is not just the sum of the parts, but the system itself can be explained only as a totality. The systemic view is, then, the opposite of reductionism, which views the total as the sum of its individual parts. In traditional organization theory, as well as in many of the sciences, the subsystems have been studied separately, with a view to putting the parts together into a whole at some later point. The systemic view emphasizes that this is not possible and that the starting point has to be the total system (Koskinen, 2013).\n\nSource: Koskinen, 2013.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/tech","prefLabel":{"en":"tech"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7707f8f2-dde5-48ea-93e4-2a0825d8d78c","prefLabel":{"en":"Technical potential"},"definition":{"en":"The mitigation potential constrained by biogeophysical limits as well as availability of technologies and practices. Quantification of technical potentials takes into account primarily technical considerations, but social, economic and/or environmental considerations are occasionally also included, if these represent strong barriers for the deployment of an option."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/807c71c1-ea0f-4ae5-a097-cb3ee6c53898","prefLabel":{"en":"Technology deployment"},"definition":{"en":"The act of bringing technology into effective application, involving a set of actors and activities to initiate, facilitate and/or support its implementation."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/46e4cb32-f1e8-4c65-82e6-2f98c787b31b","prefLabel":{"en":"Technology diffusion"},"definition":{"en":"The spread of a technology across different groups users/markets over time."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/3281c663-22c4-4e19-9525-e511f01d3841","prefLabel":{"en":"Technology transfer"},"definition":{"en":"The exchange of knowledge, hardware and associated software, money and goods among stakeholders, which leads to the spread of technology for adaptation or mitigation. The term encompasses both diffusion of technologies and technological cooperation across and within countries."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/307f0e37-e17d-487c-99ca-573ae3a99656","prefLabel":{"en":"Temperature overshoot"},"definition":{"en":"Exceedance of a specified global warming level, followed by a decline to or below that level during a specified period of time (e.g., before 2100). Sometimes the magnitude and likelihood of the overshoot is also characterised. The overshoot duration can vary from one pathway to the next, but in most overshoot pathways in the literature and as referred to as overshoot pathways in the AR6, the overshoot occurs over a period of at least one decade and up to several decades."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a7175a8c-b001-4bce-a65d-c29056e0accf","prefLabel":{"en":"The effective climate sensitivity"},"definition":{"en":"The effective climate sensitivity (units: °C) is an estimate of the global mean surface temperature response to doubled carbon dioxide concentration that is evaluated from model output or observations for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a measure of the strengths of the climate feedbacks at a particular time and may vary with forcing history and climate state, and therefore may differ from equilibrium climate sensitivity."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/430c45ee-88dc-4671-aa12-bc4af32d6c6a","prefLabel":{"en":"Threshold"},"definition":{"en":"The level of magnitude of a system process at which sudden or rapid change occurs. A point or level at which new properties emerge in an ecological, economic or other system, invalidating predictions based on mathematical relationships that apply at lower levels (IPCC, 2007 in Gill et al., 2022)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/eaebe6d5-9eb7-4b39-a61a-ac5795d9631a","prefLabel":{"en":"Climate threshold"},"definition":{"en":"A limit within the climate system (or its forcing) beyond which the behaviour of the system is qualitatively changed."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/5803d73a-7897-46b3-bea2-db867382a888","prefLabel":{"en":"Tipping point"},"definition":{"en":"A critical threshold beyond which a system reorganises, often abruptly and/or irreversibly (IPCC AR6, 2023)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b0097e5c-a7f6-4eac-b087-a665df810256","prefLabel":{"en":"Adaptation tipping points"},"definition":{"en":"An adaptation tipping point (ATP) is the moment when the magnitude of change is such that a current management strategy can no longer meet its objectives. As a result, adaptive management is needed to prevent or postpone these ATPs (Nanda et al, 2018 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0e6f5ac7-9b2d-4929-9c23-a46654c1cacd","prefLabel":{"en":"climate tipping points"}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6c990046-620c-4bea-b94d-2355970890ca","prefLabel":{"en":"Time of emergence (ToE)"},"definition":{"en":"Time when a specific anthropogenic signal related to climate change is statistically detected to emerge from the background noise of natural climate variability in a reference period, for a specific region (Hawkins and Sutton, 2012)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/14dd1493-3b4a-4aa7-9598-22edc6929edb","prefLabel":{"en":"Tipping element"},"definition":{"en":"A component of the Earth system that is susceptible to a tipping point."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/045130ee-d81c-43de-a03a-b06e8c7b34ea","prefLabel":{"en":"tissue engineering"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/57922ce1-ae6f-45e4-88fd-5ed3f2ffeb41","prefLabel":{"en":"Tokenistic"},"definition":{"en":"The act of including a few individuals from underrepresented groups in a superficial manner to create an illusion of diversity while not addressing the underlying issues of discrimination and exclusion – for instance, in the workplace (Develop Diverse, n.d.).\n\nSource: Develop Diverse, n.d.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/761fb827-0278-459d-9431-1d3690a8382a","prefLabel":{"en":"Tool"},"altLabel":{"en":["Methods and tools","tool","tools"]},"definition":{"en":"A resource or technique designed to carry out a particular function to solve a particular problem (Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0f33212f-b367-475b-b5b6-198014f8140b","prefLabel":{"en":"Total solar irradiance (TSI)"},"definition":{"en":"The total amount of solar radiation in watts per square metre received outside the Earth’s atmosphere on a surface normal to the incident radiation, and at the Earth’s mean distance from the Sun. Reliable measurements of solar radiation can only be made from space, and the precise record extends back only to 1978. Variations of a few tenths of a percent are common, usually associated with the passage of sunspots across the solar disk. The solar cycle variation of TSI is of the order of 0.1% (AMS, 2021)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7985e474-e2b6-419c-9147-3fca7707b23d","prefLabel":{"en":"Trade-off"},"definition":{"en":"A competition between different objectives within a decision situation, where pursuing one objective will diminish achievement of other objective(s). A trade-off exists when a policy or measure aimed at one objective (e.g., reducing greenhouse gas emissions) reduces outcomes for other objective(s) (e.g., biodiversity conservation, energy security) due to adverse side effects, thereby potentially reducing the net benefit to society or the environment (IPCC AR6, 2023). The losses, or how these decisions negatively impact society, are sometimes not at the forefront of decision-making. Trade-offs are common in complex policy situations where multiple objectives, stakeholders, scales, and time-horizons collide (Tuhkanen, 2020 in Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/47595a3f-2e03-41fb-81a7-035ecadee2c0","prefLabel":{"en":"Transboundary infrastructure"},"altLabel":{"en":["Global infrastructure","Regional infrastructure"]},"definition":{"en":"Infrastructure that provides services across territorial or spatial boundaries (international/regional/national/sub-national) (DRI Lexicon, 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6e4e00dc-af2d-4ea3-be02-9e3cc3cec7ae","prefLabel":{"en":"Transdisciplinary approach"},"definition":{"en":"A transdisciplinary approach integrates different knowledge systems, or ways of knowing, beyond academia, such as practitioner knowledge, or local and indigenous knowledge (Chausson and Cole, 2020)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6969827a-7304-4f04-9312-a255ebbfe567","prefLabel":{"en":"Transient climate response (TCR)"},"definition":{"en":"The surface temperature response for the hypothetical scenario in which atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) increases at 1% yr-1 from pre-industrial to the time of a doubling of atmospheric CO2 concentration (year 70)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/11723a26-1331-4658-b7d3-db516161210d","prefLabel":{"en":"Transient climate response to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCRE)"},"definition":{"en":"The transient surface temperature change per unit cumulative carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, usually 1000 GtC. TCRE combines both information on the airborne fraction of cumulative CO2 emissions (the fraction of the total CO2 emitted that remains in the atmosphere, which is determined by carbon cycle processes) and on the transient climate response (TCR)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0a08a480-0ae8-41dc-9abb-5c030aa8338d","prefLabel":{"en":"Trend estimates uncertainty"},"definition":{"en":"Uncertainty arising from data fitting to a time-series with potential non-linear and autorogressive character."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/484b6f98-1b30-4496-a911-f8328b485866","prefLabel":{"en":"Tropical Atlantic Variability (TAV)"},"definition":{"en":"A generic term to describe the climate variability of the tropical Atlantic which is dominated at interannual to decadal time scales by two main climate modes: the Atlantic Zonal Mode (AZM) and the Atlantic Meridional Mode (AMM). The Atlantic Zonal Mode, also commonly referred to as the Atlantic Niño or Atlantic equatorial mode, is associated with sea surface temperature anomalies near the equator, peaking in the eastern basin, while the Atlantic meridional mode is characterized by an inter-hemispheric gradient of sea surface temperature and wind anomalies. Both modes are associated with significant teleconnections over Africa and South America."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/13e1331e-a4da-4016-8347-30a57af22c5a","prefLabel":{"en":"Atlantic Meridional Mode (AMM)"},"definition":{"en":"The Atlantic Meridional Mode (AMM) refers to the interannual to decadal variability of the cross-equatorial sea surface temperature gradients and surface wind anomalies in the tropical Atlantic. It modulates the strength and latitudinal shifts of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which impacts regional rainfall over Northeast Brazil and Atlantic hurricane activity. See Section AIV.2.5 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a98f6717-aecd-4711-93e8-5f1b3c623f57","prefLabel":{"en":"Atlantic Zonal Mode (AZM)"},"definition":{"en":"An equatorial coupled mode in the Atlantic similar to El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific, and therefore sometimes referred to as the Atlantic Niño. The AZM is associated with sea surface temperature anomalies near the equatorial Atlantic and rainfall disturbances over the African monsoon domain. Its variations are mostly observed in the interannual scale. It is called also Atlantic equatorial mode. See Section AIV.2.5 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/98a83b34-4ea8-44be-ac4f-82043edac2e9","prefLabel":{"en":"Tropical Cyclone (Cyclonic Wind, Rain [Storm] Surge)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Cyclone,","Hurricane,","Severe tropical cyclone","Typhoon,"]},"definition":{"en":"A tropical cyclone is a cyclone of tropical origin of small diameter (some hundreds of kilometres) with a minimum surface pressure in some cases of less than 900 hPa, very violent winds and torrential rain; sometimes accompanied by thunderstorms. It usually contains a central region, known as the ‘eye’ of the storm, with a diameter of the order of some tens of kilometres, and with light winds and a more or less lightly clouded sky (WMO, 2017).Alternative definition: A tropical cyclone is a warm-core, non-frontal synoptic-scale cyclone, originating over tropical or subtropical waters, with organised deep convection and closed surface wind circulation about a well-defined centre (WMO, 2017).A tropical cyclone is a cyclone of tropical origin of small diameter (some hundreds of kilometres) with a minimum surface pressure in some cases of less than 900 hPa, very violent winds and torrential rain; sometimes accompanied by thunderstorms. It usually contains a central region, known as the ‘eye’ of the storm, with a diameter of the order of some tens of kilometres, and with light winds and a more or less lightly clouded sky (WMO, 2017).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Depending on the maximum sustained wind speed, tropical cyclones are designated as follows (WMO, no date): *The designation thresholds for storm and hurricane are based on the Beaufort Scale. Tropical cyclones can be hundreds of kilometres wide and can bring destructive high winds, torrential rain, storm surges and occasionally tornadoes (WMO, no date). The typhoon season in the western North Pacific region typically runs from May to November. The Americas/Caribbean hurricane season runs from 1 June to 30 November, peaking in August and September. The cyclone season in the South Pacific and Australia normally runs from November to April. In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, tropical cyclones usually occur from April to June, and September to November. The East Coast of Africa normally experiences tropical cyclones from November to April (WMO, no date). Note: Typhoon, hurricane, cyclone, and tropical cyclone are different terms for the same weather phenomenon in different geographical regions (WMO, no date):"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a96953eb-8139-4936-a870-90bd30233be1","prefLabel":{"en":"Trypanosomiasis (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Sleeping sickness"]},"definition":{"en":"Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness) is caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Trypanosoma transmitted by infected tsetse flies and is endemic in 36 sub-Saharan African countries. Without treatment, the disease is considered fatal, where there are tsetse flies that transmit the disease (WHO, 2020).WHO, 2020. Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness). World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 26 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Human African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a vector-borne parasitic disease. It is caused by infection with protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Trypanosoma. They are transmitted to humans by tsetse fly (Glossina genus) bites which have acquired their infection from humans or from animals harbouring human pathogenic parasites (WHO, 2020). Tsetse flies are only found in sub-Saharan Africa and only certain species transmit the disease. For reasons so far unexplained, in many regions where tsetse flies are found, sleeping sickness is not. Rural populations in regions where transmission occurs and which depend on agriculture, fishing, animal husbandry or hunting are the most exposed to the tsetse fly and thus to the disease. The disease develops in areas ranging from a single village to an entire region. Within an infected area, the intensity of the disease can vary from one village to the next (WHO, 2020). Human African trypanosomiasis takes two forms, depending on the parasite involved: Another form of trypanosomiasis occurs mainly in Latin America. It is known as American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease. The causal organism belongs to a different Trypanosoma subgenus and is transmitted by a different vector (WHO, 2020). Major human epidemics have occurred in Africa over the past century: one between 1896 and 1906, mostly in Uganda and the Congo Basin; one in 1920 in a number of African countries; and the most recent epidemic started in 1970 and lasted until the late 1990s (WHO, 2020). The 1920 epidemic was controlled by mobile teams which carried out the screening of millions of people at risk. By the mid-1960s, the disease was under control with less than 5000 cases reported in the whole continent. After this success, surveillance was relaxed, and the disease reappeared, reaching epidemic proportions in several regions by 1970. The efforts of the World Health Organization (WHO), national control programmes, bilateral cooperation and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) during the 1990s and early 21st century reversed the curve (WHO, 2020). Since the number of new human African trypanosomiasis cases reported between 2000 and 2018 dropped by 95%. The WHO neglected tropical diseases road map targeted its elimination as a public health problem by 2020 and interruption of transmission (zero cases) for 2030. Sleeping sickness threatens millions of people in 36 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Many of the affected populations live in remote rural areas with limited access to adequate health services, which complicates the surveillance and therefore the diagnosis and treatment of cases. In addition, displacement of populations, war and poverty are important factors that facilitate transmission (WHO, 2020). Currently, the disease incidence differs from one country to another as well as in different parts of a single country. In the past 10 years, over 70% of reported cases occurred in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (WHO, 2020). Angola, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Malawi and South Sudan declared between 10 and 100 new cases in 2018. Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Kenya, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe declared between 1 and 10 new cases in 2018. Countries such as Burkina Faso, Ghana, and Nigeria, have reported sporadic cases in the past 10 years. Countries like Benin, Botswana, Burundi, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Swaziland and Togo have not reported any new cases for over a decade. Transmission of the disease seems to have stopped in some of these countries but there are still some areas where it is difficult to assess the exact situation because the unstable social circumstances and/or difficult accessibility hinder surveillance and diagnostic activities (WHO, 2020). The disease is mostly transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly but there are other ways in which people are infected. These include: mother-to-child infection (the trypanosome can cross the placenta and infect the foetus); mechanical transmission through other blood-sucking insects, however, it is difficult to assess its epidemiological impact; accidental infections in laboratories due to pricks with contaminated needles; and transmission of the parasite through sexual contact (WHO, 2020). Symptoms of the disease in the first stage start when the trypanosomes multiply in subcutaneous tissues, blood and lymph. This is also called the haemo-lymphatic stage, which entails bouts of fever, headaches, enlarged lymph nodes, joint pains and itching. In the second stage the parasites cross the blood-brain barrier to infect the central nervous system. This is known as the neurological or meningo-encephalic stage. In general, this is when more obvious signs and symptoms of the disease appear: changes of behaviour, confusion, sensory disturbances and poor coordination. Disturbance of the sleep cycle, which gives the disease its name, is an important feature. Without treatment, sleeping sickness is considered fatal although cases of healthy carriers have been reported (WHO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a95e933c-c14d-4d48-b295-9824d3232709","prefLabel":{"en":"Trypanosomosis (Animal)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Chagas","Nagana"]},"definition":{"en":"Animal trypanosomosis is a lethal parasitic disease caused by unicellular organisms named trypanosomes. The disease is cyclically transmitted by the bite of infected tsetse flies and it affects both humans ‘sleeping sickness’ and livestock ‘nagana’ (FAO, 2020).FAO, 2020. Programme Against African Trypanosomosis (PAAT). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Accessed 26 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis occurs in tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa, where it constitutes a major obstacle to the development of animal production. The considerable economic and social repercussions make control of this disease a priority for the development of a large part of the African continent. African animal trypanosomosis affects ruminants, swine, camels, equines, carnivores, as well as a broad range of wild animals, but the heaviest economic burden is in cattle. In cattle, the disease is called Nagana. The disease is caused by several species of trypanosome but mainly by Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei, and T. simiae. T. vivax is also present is Latin America, where in the absence of tsetse flies it is transmitted by other biting flies. It is known as American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease. A different species (i.e., T. evansi) is also present outside of Africa, including Asia. Control and elimination of animal trypanosomosis as a zoonotic disease would help to improve animal production in Africa considerably and would also contribute to enhance human health (WHO, 2020). Transmission of trypanosomes by insects occurs through cyclical transmission or mechanical transmission. Cyclical transmission, during which the trypanosomes actively multiply in the vectors, occurs through the intermediary of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.). Mechanical transmission can be caused by various blood-sucking insects such as flies of the family Tabanidae (horse flies) and Stomoxys spp. (FAO, 1983). Trypanosoma brucei, and in particular the two subspecies T. brucei gambiense and T. brucei rhodesiense are the causes of human African trypanosomosis, also known as sleeping sickness. Animals can host the human pathogen parasites, especially T. brucei rhodesiense, of which domestic and wild animals are the most important reservoir. Animals can also be infected with T. brucei gambiense and probably act as a reservoir to a lesser extent. However, the precise epidemiological role of the animal reservoir in the gambiense form of the disease is not yet well known (WHO, 2020)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/aff451d1-8a54-4989-ba71-9bfe791874ce","prefLabel":{"en":"Typhoid Fever (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is usually spread through contaminated food or water. An estimated 11–20 million people get sick from typhoid and between 128,000 and 161,000 people die from it every year (WHO, 2018).WHO, 2018. Typhoid. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 11 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. Once Salmonella Typhi bacteria have been ingested, they multiply and spread into the bloodstream. Urbanisation and climate change have the potential to increase the global burden of typhoid. In addition, increasing resistance to antibiotic treatment is making it easier for typhoid to spread through overcrowded populations in cities and inadequate and/or flooded water and sanitation systems (WHO, 2018a). Improved living conditions and the introduction of antibiotics resulted in a drastic reduction of typhoid fever morbidity and mortality in industrialised countries. In developing areas of Africa, the Americas, South-East Asia and the Western Pacific regions, however, the disease continues to be a public health problem. The global typhoid fever disease burden is estimated to be 11–20 million cases annually, resulting in about 128,000 to 161,000 deaths per year (WHO, 2018a). Salmonella Typhi only affects humans. Persons with typhoid fever carry the bacteria in their bloodstream and intestinal tract. Symptoms include prolonged high fever, fatigue, headache, nausea, abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhoea. Some patients may have a rash. Severe cases may lead to serious complications or even death. Typhoid fever can be confirmed through blood testing (WHO, 2018a). Typhoid risk is higher in populations that lack access to safe water and adequate sanitation. Poor communities and vulnerable groups including children are at highest risk (WHO, 2018a). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2018b)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/4428e2a3-e746-4c80-bd40-f405816099c5","prefLabel":{"en":"Typological regions"},"definition":{"en":"Regions of the Earth that share one or more specific features (known as ’typologies’), such as geographic location (e.g., coastal), physical processes (e.g., monsoons), and biological (e.g., coral reefs, tropical forests), geological (e.g., mountains) or anthropogenic (e.g., megacities) formation, and for which it is useful to consider the common climate features. Typological regions are smaller than climatic zones (e.g., a mountain region) and can be discontinuous (e.g., a group of megacities affected by the urban heat island effect, or monsoon regions)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b5dbf805-5df0-49a6-9cef-b2505bcba712","prefLabel":{"en":"Unintended consequences"},"definition":{"en":"In the context of disaster resilient infrastructure, unintended consequences are the set of outcomes of a policy or action that were not the direct intention of that policy or action (DRI Lexicon, 2023)."},"scopeNote":{"en":["Often, these unintended outcomes are also unforeseen or unexpected (and the terms are often used interchangeably). They can arise from the complexity of the system generating them, thus making them difficult to predict, or from the decision-makers’ failure to adequately consider the full range of possible outcomes. \n\nUnintended consequences may be positive, negative or neutral in their outcomes.\n\nUnintended consequences are sometimes viewed as ‘externalities’. The term ‘externality’ is often used in a general sense to mean consequences outside the control of the bodies directly responsible for the policy or action (e.g., the operation of an infrastructure). However, the term ‘externality’ has a more specific meaning in economics, where the costs or benefits of a consequence in a given context are borne by people outside the sphere of the decision makers’ assessment. Greenhouse gas emissions, the cause of climate change, are an example, where the emitters of these gases do not bear the full costs of their emissions (as the costs are spread globally). In both senses, unintended consequences may result from externalities."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/df7b1a9c-3d96-42b0-9774-0420aeacd839","prefLabel":{"en":"Upscaling"},"altLabel":{"en":["roadmap for upscaling","upscaling"]},"definition":{"en":"The upgrade and improvement of research output in terms of scale, quality, or resolution (Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/82e2a7e8-dbe7-48aa-8398-6ae44062d087","prefLabel":{"en":"Uptake"},"definition":{"en":"The transfer of substances (such as carbon) or energy (e.g., heat) from one compartment of a system to another; for example, in the Earth system from the atmosphere to the ocean or to the land."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ddf331c8-1a64-4c8b-a52a-aaf4fe5d01e6","prefLabel":{"en":"Urban Tool"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a9644e29-22ee-4067-8856-416c69a80373","prefLabel":{"en":"Urbanisation"},"definition":{"en":"Urbanisation is a multi-dimensional process that involves at least three simultaneous changes: (i) land use change: transformation of formerly rural settlements or natural land into urban settlements; (ii) demographic change: a shift in the spatial distribution of a population from rural to urban areas; and (iii) infrastructure change: an increase in provision of infrastructure services including electricity, sanitation, etc. Urbanisation often includes changes in lifestyle, culture, and behaviour, and thus alters the demographic, economic, and social structure of both urban and rural areas. (Stokes and Seto 2019; Seto et al. 2014; UNDESA 2018)"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/0d11ee1a-a84d-4869-8c81-c0cb40d9eb9e","prefLabel":{"en":"Users"},"altLabel":{"en":["user"]},"definition":{"en":"In general terms, a user is an individual, organisation or community who employs or uses a product, model, or service (Gill et al., 2022)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ba89c7ca-712b-4fef-bd78-8ccf43a4e5cb","prefLabel":{"en":"Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Vaccine preventable diseases are those infectious diseases that can be prevented by vaccination (WHO, 2012).WHO, 2012. Vaccine-preventable diseases and vaccines. In: International Travel and Health, Chapter 6. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 20 September 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Immunisation, the use of vaccines to produce immunity to specific diseases, is a global health and development success story, saving millions of lives every year. Vaccination is a highly effective method of preventing certain infectious diseases. Vaccines reduce risks of getting a disease by working with each individual’s natural defences to build protection (WHO, no date). Vaccines are generally very safe, and serious adverse reactions are uncommon (WHO, 2012). Health care now has vaccines to prevent more than 20 life-threatening diseases, helping people of all ages live longer, healthier lives. Immunisation currently prevents 2–3 million deaths every year from diseases such as diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, influenza and measles (WHO, no date). Immunisation is a key component of primary health care and an indisputable human right. It is also one of the most costeffective health investments. Vaccines are also critical to the prevention and control of infectious-disease outbreaks. They underpin global health security and are a vital tool in the battle against antimicrobial resistance (WHO, no date). Despite considerable progress, many people around the world (including nearly 20 million infants each year) have insufficient access to vaccines. In some countries, progress has stalled or even reversed, and there is a risk that complacency will undermine past achievements (WHO, no date). Global vaccination coverage – the proportion of the world’s children who receive recommended vaccines – has remained the same over the past few years (WHO, no date). Vaccines train the immune system in humans to create antibodies (WHO, no date). Vaccines protect against many diseases, including: cervical cancer, cholera, diphtheria, hepatitis B, influenza, Japanese encephalitis, measles, meningitis, mumps, pertussis, pneumonia, polio, rabies, rotavirus, rubella, tetanus, typhoid, varicella, and yellow fever (WHO, no date). A vaccine against Ebola Virus Disease, which has been prequalified by the World Health Organization (WHO), was developed after disease outbreaks in the Democratic Republic of Congo from 2018 (WHO, 2019). Not all of these vaccinations are needed in every country (WHO, 2018). Some may only be given prior to travel, in areas of risk, or to people in high-risk occupations. Working with healthcare workers it is important to determine which vaccinations are needed, when and by whom (WHO, no date). Vaccines contain weakened or inactive parts of a particular organism (antigen) that triggers an immune response within the body. Newer vaccines contain the blueprint for producing antigens rather than the antigen itself. Regardless of whether the vaccine is made up of the antigen itself or the blueprint so that the body will produce the antigen, this weakened version will not cause the disease in the person receiving the vaccine (WHO, 2021)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/385342fa-b331-4eaf-b1a7-a8e783c7cdd3","prefLabel":{"en":"Varicella and herpes zoster (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Chickenpox"]},"definition":{"en":"Varicella is an acute, highly contagious disease caused by varicellazoster virus (WHO, 2014).WHO, 2014. Biologicals: Varicella. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 13 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a member of the herpesvirus family. Only one serotype of VZV is known, and humans are the only reservoir (WHO, 2014). Following infection, the virus remains latent in neural ganglia and in some cases, it is reactivated to cause herpes zoster, or shingles, generally in elderly or immunocompromised individuals (WHO, 2014). Initial infection with VZV causes varicella (or chickenpox). While mostly a mild disorder in childhood, varicella tends to be more severe in adults. It may be fatal, especially in neonates and in immunocompromised persons. Infection during early pregnancy can rarely lead to destructive lesions in the foetus with shingles-like scarring of tissues (Lamont et al., 2011). Varicella is characterised by an itchy rash of small blisters, usually starting on the scalp and face and initially accompanied by fever and malaise. The rash gradually spreads to the trunk and limbs but tends to spare the hands and feet. The blisters gradually dry out and crusts appear which then disappear over a period of one to two weeks (WHO, 2014). The infection may occasionally be complicated by pneumonia or encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), at times with serious or fatal consequences (WHO, 2014). Shingles is a painful rash, usually affecting a zone on one side of the face or body, that may occasionally result in permanent damage to the nerves or cause visual impairment. In immunosuppressed individuals it is severe and often dangerous but can be treated with antiviral medicines (WHO, 2014). VZV transmission occurs via droplets, aerosols, or direct contact with respiratory secretions, and almost always produces clinical disease in susceptible individuals. Shingles is less infectious than chickenpox as the rash is limited and respiratory involvement is much less common (WHO, 2014). The World Health Organization (WHO) has published guidance on case classification and surveillance standards (WHO, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/8c5a0663-be03-4607-a0f5-aad1337cb409","prefLabel":{"en":"Vector-borne disease"},"definition":{"en":"Vector borne diseases encompass a variety of illnesses that are caused via the spread of pathogens by living organisms known as vectors. These infectious diseases can be transmitted via vectors among humans (e.g., malaria, dengue), among animals (e.g., African swine fever, East Coast fever), or from animals to humans (e.g., Nipah virus disease). Many of these vectors are bloodsucking insects, and mosquitoes are the bestknown disease vector. Other vectors include ticks, flies, sandflies, fleas, triatomine bugs and some species of freshwater aquatic snails (adapted from OIE, 2019; WHO, 2020).OIE, 2019. Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. World Organisation of Animal Health (OIE). Accessed 11 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) encompass a variety of illnesses that can be transmitted among humans (e.g., malaria, dengue), among animals (e.g., African swine fever, East Coast fever), or from animals to humans (e.g., Nipah virus disease) (OIE, 2015a,b; WHO, 2020). Many of these vectors are bloodsucking insects, and mosquitoes are the best known disease vector. Others include ticks, flies, sandflies, fleas, triatomine bugs and some species of freshwater aquatic snail (OIE, 2015a,b; WHO, 2020). Examples of zoonotic VBDs include: Eastern, Western and Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis; Rift Valley fever; Japanese encephalitis; West Nile fever; Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever; Nipah virus disease; Q fever; Tularaemia; African trypanosomosis; and Chagas disease. Some of these VBDs are described in detail in other Hazard Information Profiles: African swine fever (BI0070), Q fever (BI0081), Rift Valley fever (BI0082) and trypanosomosis (BI0083). Metrics and numeric limits Not identified.","Vectors are living organisms that can transmit infectious pathogens between humans, or from animals to humans. Many of these vectors are bloodsucking insects, which ingest disease-producing microorganisms during a blood meal from an infected host (human or animal) and later transmit it into a new host, after the pathogen has replicated. Often, once a vector becomes infectious, they are capable of transmitting the pathogen for the rest of their life during each subsequent bite/blood meal (WHO, 2020). Vector-borne diseases are human illnesses caused by parasites, viruses and bacteria that are transmitted by vectors. Every year there are more than 700,000 deaths from diseases such as malaria, dengue, schistosomiasis, human African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and onchocerciasis (WHO, 2020). The burden of these diseases is highest in tropical and subtropical areas, and they disproportionately affect the poorest populations. Since 2014, major outbreaks of dengue, malaria, chikungunya, yellow fever and Zika have afflicted populations, claimed lives, and overwhelmed health systems in many countries. Other diseases such as Chikungunya, leishmaniasis and lymphatic filariasis cause chronic suffering, life-long morbidity, disability and occasional stigmatisation (WHO, 2020). Vector-borne diseases account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases, causing more than 700,000 deaths annually. They may be caused by parasites, bacteria or viruses (WHO, 2020). Examples of vector borne diseases include: The table is a non-exhaustive list of vector-borne diseases, ordered according to the vector by which it is transmitted. The list also illustrates the type of pathogen that causes the disease in humans (WHO, 2020): Chikungunya Dengue Lymphatic filariasis Rift Valley fever Yellow Fever Zika Virus Virus Parasite Virus Virus Virus Lymphatic filariasis Malaria Parasite Parasite Japanese encephalitis Lymphatic filariasis West Nile fever Virus Parasite Virus Plague (transmitted from rats to humans) Tungiasis Bacteria Ectoparasite Typhus Louse-borne relapsing fever Bacteria Bacteria Leishmaniasis Sandfly fever (phlebotomus fever) Bacteria Virus Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever Lyme disease Relapsing fever (borreliosis) Rickettsial diseases (e.g. spotted fever and Q fever) Tick-borne encephalitis Tularaemia Virus Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria Virus Bacteria"]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/6e16064d-3353-4911-b8fc-f36114f8e3c5","prefLabel":{"en":"Vertical land motion (VLM)"},"definition":{"en":"The change in height of the land surface or the sea floor and can have several causes in addition to elastic deformation associated with contemporary changes in gravity, rotation and viscoelastic solid Earth deformation (GRD) and viscoelastic deformation associated with glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA). Subsidence (sinking of the land surface or sea floor) can, for instance, occur through compaction of alluvial sediments in deltaic regions, removal of fluids such as gas, oil, and water, or drainage of peatlands. Tectonic deformation of the Earth’s crust can occur as a result of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/426b579e-8231-4e9d-92c0-d74a16ddddaa","prefLabel":{"en":"Very short-lived halogenated substances (VSLSs)"},"definition":{"en":"Very short-lived halogenated substances (VSLSs) are considered to include source gases (very short-lived halogenated substances present in the atmosphere in the form they were emitted from natural and anthropogenic sources), halogenated product gases arising from source gas degradation, and other sources of tropospheric inorganic halogens. VSLSs have tropospheric lifetimes of around 0.5 years or less."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/e3c0ba46-91a1-4e14-8b60-e2194b893175","prefLabel":{"en":"Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers (Human)"},"definition":{"en":"Viral haemorrhagic fever is a general term for severe illnesses, sometimes associated with bleeding, that may be caused by a number of viruses. The term is usually applied to diseases caused by viruses that belong to the Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridae, Filoviridae and Flaviviridae families (WHO, no date).WHO, no date. Haemorrhagic fevers: Viral. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 13 December 2019.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term ‘viral haemorrhagic fever’ is used to describe a severe multisystem syndrome (multisystem in that multiple organ systems in the body are affected). Characteristically, the overall vascular system is damaged, and the body’s ability to regulate itself is impaired. Symptoms are often accompanied by haemorrhage (bleeding); however, the bleeding is itself rarely lifethreatening. While some types of haemorrhagic fever viruses can cause relatively mild illnesses, many of these viruses cause severe, life-threatening disease (CDC, 2014). Viruses associated with viral haemorrhagic fever naturally reside in animal reservoir hosts or arthropod vectors. They depend on their hosts for survival and so are usually restricted to the geographic area inhabited by those animals or arthropod vectors (PHE, 2018). Viral haemorrhagic fever (viruses) include: Arenaviridae Bunyaviridae Flaviviridae Filoviridae Note that this is not an exhaustive list (CDC, 2018). Humans may acquire viral haemorrhagic fever viruses when they come into close contact with live animal hosts, animal carcasses during slaughtering and/or animal droppings. Tick or mosquito bites can transmit some of the viruses, such as Crimean-Congo fever and yellow fever, between animal species, including humans. Dengue is currently the mosquito borne viral haemorrhagic fever with the highest public health impact worldwide with an estimate of 390 million infections every year in tropical areas where the Aedes mosquitoes are widespread (WHO, 2020). For other viruses, animals are the host (PHE, 2018). Direct transmission of the virus through contact with the body fluids or secretions of infected patients is also possible for some of the viruses (WHO, no date). Several viral haemorrhagic fevers are prone to outbreaks and epidemics with high case fatality rates. These include Ebola, Lassa fever and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever. These diseases are part of the priority list for the World Health Organization (WHO) Research and Development Blueprint for Action to Prevent Epidemics (WHO, 2016a). Because increasing numbers of people travel each year, outbreaks of these diseases are becoming an increasing threat in non-endemic areas (PHE, 2018)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/51a19ac2-70fa-43d2-bf50-23fe2b363d0a","prefLabel":{"en":"Volcanogenic"},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/066467e3-55ad-4725-9b3e-e01a9490cf22","prefLabel":{"en":"Ash/Tephra Fall (Physical and Chemical)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Blocks,","Bombs","Lapilli,","Pyroclast,"]},"definition":{"en":"Tephra is a collective term for fragmented magma and old (i.e., preexisting) rocks ejected into the atmosphere from volcanic vents during an explosive eruption, irrespective of size, composition and shape (BGS, no date). The term ‘volcanic ash’ refers to the finest particles of tephra (less than 2 mm diameter).BGS, no date. Tephra/ash fall. British Geological Survey (BGS). Accessed 22 April 2021.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term ‘volcanic ash’ is often used loosely to include larger fragments, more correctly termed ‘lapilli’ (2 to 64 mm in diameter). The largest tephra clasts (> 64 mm) are called blocks and bombs. Fragments of all sizes generated during fragmentation of magma and lava are also known as ‘pyroclasts’, whether they travel through the atmosphere or are directly entrained in lateral moving flows. Along with emissions of gas, tephra is the most frequent and widespread volcanic hazard. It is ejected into the atmosphere and transported laterally by wind and/or lateral gravitational spreading of umbrella clouds before falling out under gravity. Fine tephra (mainly volcanic ash) also rises convectively above pyroclastic density currents and lava fountains (Bonadonna et al., 2015, 2021; Jenkins, 2015). Tephra can affect very large areas; volcanic ash can remain airborne for days and can be transported for thousands of kilometres and may disrupt air traffic. Blocks and bombs mostly follow a ballistic trajectory, and so are not strongly affected by wind; nonetheless, the smallest blocks can also be entrained within convective plumes impacting a larger area than ballistic clasts. Tephra can cause fatalities directly, owing to ballistic impact, and indirectly due to collapse of buildings (mostly roofs) and trees due to tephra load. In addition, public health threats, clean-up and disruption to critical infrastructure services, aviation and primary production can lead to substantial societal impacts and costs, even at thicknesses on the ground of a few millimetres. Hot tephra (e.g., large lapilli and blocks and bombs) can also trigger fires if falling on ignitable material (e.g., dry vegetation, wooden structures). Intense tephra fall reduces visibility and may cause complete darkness during daylight hours, creating significant hazards for driving, for example (USGS, no date). Lightning may be generated by friction between the fine airborne particles, which can be localised above the volcano or accompany large ash plumes as they move downwind. The impacts can be experienced across wide areas and can be long-lived, since eruptions can last from hours to years (IVHHN, 2021). Tephra-fall deposits may also be the source of secondary hazards (e.g., lahars) and can be remobilised into the atmosphere by wind, traffic and human activities, prolonging the impacts. Tephra varies in appearance depending upon the composition of the magma and the style of the eruption (Bonadonna et al., 2015). Various analytical and numerical models have been developed that forecast tephra dispersal and deposition from the finest fractions to ballistic blocks (e.g., Folch, 2012; Bonadonna et al., 2015; Biass et al., 2016; Osman et al., 2019). The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) leads operational forecasting of ash cloud transport for the benefit of the aviation sector (ICAO, 2012; Lechner et al., 2017). To assess severity at a site, tephra falls are most commonly described (e.g., eyewitness accounts) or measured according to their thickness. Increasingly though, loading (mass per unit area; kg/m2) is more informative for assessing impact to structures and agriculture, and enables consideration of water saturation (Jenkins et al., 2015). For respiratory health exposure and hazard assessment, monitoring of airborne concentrations of fine particulates is preferable, alongside physicochemical and toxicological characterisation of the ash particles (e.g., Horwell et al., 2013). There were 52 recorded fatal incidents as a result of tephra (not including ballistics) between 1500 AD and 2017 resulting in 4315 fatalities and these occurred between 0.5 and 170 km from the source volcano at a median distance of 10 km (Brown et al., 2017). Over the same period, there were 57 fatal incidents due to ballistics, with 367 recorded fatalities 0 to 7 km from the volcanic source (Brown et al., 2017). Approximate tephra thicknesses (hazard intensities) that relate to key damage and functionality states for a range of building types, critical infrastructure and agricultural categories are given by Jenkins et al. (2015)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/855c6698-f21e-4d03-8cf7-0f7ca338bfd3","prefLabel":{"en":"Ballistics (Volcanic)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Projectiles"]},"definition":{"en":"Ballistics comprise fragments of magma and old (i.e., pre-existing) rocks ejected during an explosive eruption at variable velocity and angle on cannon ball-like trajectories; they are not entrained within the volcanic plume and are dispersed in proximity to the vent (typically 5 km) (adapted from Biass et al., 2016 and Bonadonna et al., 2021).Biass, S., J.-L. Falcone, C. Bonadonna, F. Di Traglia, M. Pistolesi, M. Riso and P. Lestuzzi, 2016. Great Balls of Fire: A probabilistic approach to quantify the hazard related to ballistics – A case study at La Foss volcano, Vulcano Island, Italy. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 325:1-14.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Ballistics may be a few centimetres to several metres in diameter. In most cases, the range of ballistics is a few hundred metres to 5 km, but they can be thrown to distances over 10 km in the most powerful explosions (Blong, 1984). Some blocks and bombs (i.e., tephra clasts >64 mm) can also be entrained within the volcanic plume and sedimented at larger distances than ballistics (Osman et al., 2019). Fragments of all sizes generated during fragmentation of magma and lava are also known as ‘pyroclasts’ whether they travel through the atmosphere or are directly entrained in lateral moving flows. Various analytical and numerical models have been developed that forecast ballistic dispersal (e.g., Fitzgerald et al., 2014; Biass et al., 2016). Primary hazards. The high kinetic energies of ballistics when they land makes them hazardous to people, buildings, infrastructure and other assets. Ballistics may be ejected at over 300 m/s but slow down during flight, with terminal velocities typically <150 m/s (Walker et al., 1971). Impact energy (kinetic energy at the moment of impact) is strongly controlled by the size of a ballistic because this limits both its terminal velocity and mass (Williams et al., 2017). Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia et al. (2012) modelled impact energies of ballistics 0.2–0.6 m in diameter during small explosive eruptions (VEI 2–3) to be up to 106 J, well over the threshold required to penetrate reinforced concrete slabs (Jenkins et al., 2014). Fragments of lava can be over 1100°C so, although they cool during flight, they may retain sufficient thermal energy on landing to burn certain building materials or other flammable materials (Vanderkluysen et al., 2012). Secondary hazards. Ballistics may cause indirect fatalities and damage owing to the collapse of buildings (mostly roofs) or damage to infrastructure (power, roads). Hot ballistics can start fires if falling on ignitable material (e.g., dry vegetation, wooden structures). Intense volcanic explosions that generate ballistics may cause shock and infrasonic waves in the atmosphere, which can shatter windows and damage delicate equipment (e.g., electronic doors) at distances of several kilometres from the volcano. Ballistics and other loose fragmentary material may be remobilised in lahars or landslides."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/89337cec-2169-4239-a691-1e7d02f8cfa8","prefLabel":{"en":"Debris Flow/Lahars/Floods"},"altLabel":{"en":["Debris flow,","Volcanic mudflow"]},"definition":{"en":"Lahars are discrete, rapid, gravity-driven, water-saturated flows containing water and solid particles of volcanic rock, sediment, ice, wood, and other debris that originate at volcanoes (Gudmundsson, 2015; Vallance and Iverson, 2015).Gudmundsson, M.T., 2015. Hazards from lahars and Jökulhlaups. In: Sigurdsson, H., B. Houghton, S. McNutt et al. (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, 2nd Ed. Academic Press, pp. 971-984.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Lahars are sometimes referred to as debris flows and colloquially as volcanic mudflows. The word ‘lahar’ is a generic term for a complex flow phenomenon encompassing a wide range of flow types with different physical parameters. Sub-glacial eruptions can produce floods and lahars, known as ‘Jökulhlaups’ in Iceland (Gudmundsson, 2015). Lahars can be extremely mobile, flowing at high speeds on steep volcanic terrains and for long distances (tens of kilometres) along valleys. A single lahar can consist of multiple alternating phases of flow with differing characteristics (Vallance and Iverson, 2015). Lahars are typically topographically confined flows, so existing channel networks often control the dominant flow routing. However, lahars can be much larger than typical streamflows (both in the depth of the flow and the flow rate) so that overbanking is possible for lahars. Lahars are generally categorised as primary (syn-eruption) and secondary (post-eruption) (Vallance and Iverson, 2015). Primary lahars are caused directly by volcanic eruptions through a range of processes including the disruption of crater lakes, the melting/erosion of glacial ice and snow by volcanic flows (e.g., pyroclastic density currents), the mixing of tephra with rain and ground water, and the incorporation of ground water into debris avalanches. Primary lahars may be hot for an extended time during their motion (Pierson and Major, 2014). Secondary lahars occur due to the remobilisation of erupted pyroclastic deposits, often during intense and/or long-lasting rainfall, as a volcano’s drainage system responds to the surface deposits added during eruptions and can continue for many years after an eruption with a decreasing frequency over time (Pierson and Major, 2014). However, eruptive activity and secondary lahars can occur contemporaneously during long-lived eruptions at persistently active volcanoes. Measurable and modellable parameters include flow speed, flow density, temperature, dynamic pressure, flow and deposit thickness, maximum runout, area of invasion, triggering factors (e.g., rainfall), solids volume concentration, eroded depth, friction coefficients. There is little correlation between the magnitude of an eruption and the volume of primary lahars. An example is the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, which was a relatively small eruption in terms of erupted volume, but pyroclastic density currents flowing over an extensive summit ice and snow cap resulted in substantial glacial and snow melting (2×107 m3), initiating large (peak discharge <48,000 m3/s), fast (<17 m/s) lahars simultaneously in several drainages (Pierson et al., 1990). The devastating consequences included the loss of more than 24,000 lives (Brown et al., 2017). The magnitude of secondary lahars is dependent on rainfall intensity and duration, as well as sediment availability, so the largest lahar can occur a long time (possibly years) after an eruption (Pierson and Major, 2014)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cdc07589-ff7a-4ced-a2a6-55218136a488","prefLabel":{"en":"Ground Shaking (Volcanic Earthquake)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ground motion,","Ground acceleration,","Ground movement,","Ground velocity"]},"definition":{"en":"Ground shaking is the movement of the Earth’s surface from earthquakes. Ground shaking is produced by waves that travel through the earth and along its surface (USGS, no date).A volcanic earthquake is any earthquake that results from tectonic forces which occur in conjunction with volcanic activity (UN-SPIDER, no date).Ground shaking is the movement of the Earth’s surface from earthquakes. Ground shaking is produced by waves that travel through the earth and along its surface (USGS, no date).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Seismic activity is a common feature of volcanic eruptions. Often, there are many thousands of earthquakes recorded during an eruption. Most volcanic earthquakes are small but significant (moderate and large) volcanic earthquakes do occur (Zobin, 2001). Volcanic earthquakes, like all earthquakes, can cause shaking, damage to buildings and other structures, as well as changes in the surrounding environment. This shaking depends on the size of the earthquake, the distance from the source and the soil conditions (Bormann et al., 2013)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/9f10ed65-09ca-4b40-83ed-bc1eb0526f37","prefLabel":{"en":"Landslide (Volcanic Trigger)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Mass wasting,","Slip","Mass movement,"]},"definition":{"en":"A landslide is the downslope movement of soil, rock and organic materials under the effects of gravity, which occurs when the gravitational driving forces exceed the frictional resistance of the material resisting on the slope. Landslides could be terrestrial or submarine (Varnes, 1978).Varnes, D.J., 1978. Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster, R.L. and R.J. Krizek (eds.), Landslides, Analysis and Control. Special report 176: Transportation Research Board. National Academy of Sciences, pp. 11-33.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The term ‘landslide’ encompasses five modes of slope movement: falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows. These are subdivided according to the type of geological material (bedrock, debris, or earth). Slope movement occurs when forces acting down-slope (mainly due to gravity) exceed the strength of the earth materials that compose the slope. Landslides are common on volcanic cones because they are tall, steep, and weakened by the rise and eruption of molten rock. Magma releases volcanic gases that partially dissolve in groundwater, resulting in a hot acidic hydrothermal system that weakens rock by altering minerals to clay (USGS, no date). Volcano landslides (debris avalanches) range in size from less than 1 km3 to more than 100 km3 (USGS, no date). They comprise masses of rock, soil and snow that are mobilised when the flank of a volcano collapses and slides downslope. The mobilised sediment can be very destructive and entrain more sediment (as well as vegetation or structures) along its path. The high velocity and momentum allows them to cross valleys and run up slopes several hundred metres high. The larger landslides are generally more deep-seated, involving weak hydrothermal and magmatic systems in the volcano. The landslides leave a hummocky terrain that reflects the initial structure of the edifice (de Vries and Davies, 2015). The sediment largely comprises unsorted and unstratified angular-to-subangular debris (Siebert, 1996). Runout lengths are commonly many times the height of the volcano. Many landslides contain or incorporate water that leads to secondary debris flow and lahar generation. Runout varies with the extent of air or fluid entrainment; however, the physical basis of the long runouts is not fully understood. Most are the result of several factors, including volcanic flank failures. Landslides on volcanic islands such as Hawaii, Reunion and Tristan da Cunha are characterised by long runout distances and volumes exceeding 1000 km3 (Hürlimann et al., 2000)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/2fc42402-52ce-4f9d-938a-9128ca60fdfa","prefLabel":{"en":"Lightning (Volcanic Trigger)"},"altLabel":{"en":["Dirty thunderstorm,","Near-vent lightning","Plume lightning,","Vent discharges,"]},"definition":{"en":"Volcanic lightning is an electrical discharge caused by a volcanic eruption. It is typically associated with ash-rich eruption plumes but can also arise from a range of volcanic processes including ground-hugging ash flows and lava-ocean entry (adapted from Mather and Harrison, 2006; Behnke and McNutt, 2014; and McNutt and Thomas, 2015).Behnke, S.A. and S.R. McNutt, 2014. Using lightning observations as a volcanic eruption monitoring tool. Bulletin of Volcanology, 76:847. 10.1007/s00445-014-0847-1
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Explosive injection of volcanic ash and gas into the atmosphere produces a wide range of electrical activity (Behnke and McNutt, 2014). The most hazardous electrical phenomenon is cloud-to-ground volcanic lightning, which creates a transient channel of hot plasma between a volcanic cloud and the ground. Exactly like ordinary thunderstorms, cloud-to-ground lightning from volcanic eruptions can produce thunder, trigger wildfires and destroy unshielded monitoring equipment or other infrastructure. Despite its potential impact, there are only a handful of documented cases where volcanic lightning resulted in injury or death (McNutt and Thomas, 2015). In general, the hazards of volcanic lightning increase with eruptive intensity (McNutt and Williams, 2010; Behnke et al., 2013): The origin of volcanic plume electrification is a topic of active investigation, but it is clear that at least two distinct processes are involved. Silicate charging occurs close to the eruptive vent, during magma fragmentation and high-energy collisions among airborne rock particles (Mather and Harrison, 2006). At higher altitudes, ice charging—which is responsible for lightning in ordinary thunderstorms—becomes active if the volcanic plume rises well above the freezing level (approximately -20°C), creating a mixed-phase region of ice crystals, soft hail, and supercooled liquid water (Behnke et al., 2013; Van Eaton et al., 2020). Once the particles undergo either or both of these charging mechanisms, they accumulate in oppositely charged regions due to turbulent flow and gravitational separation of particles based on their different sizes and settling speeds (Behnke et al., 2013). Charge separation builds an electric field until it exceeds the local breakdown threshold of surrounding air, resulting in lightning discharges."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/01746b22-350a-41cf-b7ff-4b9cca502bef","prefLabel":{"en":"Pyroclastic Density Current"},"altLabel":{"en":["Ash flow,","Hot avalanche","Nuée ardente,","Pyroclastic flow,"]},"definition":{"en":"Pyroclastic density currents are hot, fast-moving mixtures of volcanic particles and gas that flow according to their density relative to the surrounding medium and the Earth’s gravity. They typically originate from the gravitational collapse of explosive eruption columns, lava domes or lava-flow fronts, and from explosive lateral blasts (adapted from Branney and Kokelaar, 2002 and Cole et al., 2015).Branney, M.J. and P. Kokelaar, 2002. Pyroclastic density currents and the sedimentationnof ignimbrites. Geological Society Memoir 27. Geological Society of London.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["The following terms may be considered sub-types of pyroclastic density currents (PDCs): pyroclastic flow, block-and-ash flow, pumice flow, lateral blast, pyroclastic surge. The pyroclastic flow and surge are two end members (dense and dilute end, respectively). The term ‘ignimbrite’ is commonly used as a general term describing pumice- and ash-rich PDC deposits of very varied volumes (Druitt, 1998; Branney and Kokelaar, 2002), but has also been used to refer, predominantly, to the large-volume end of this spectrum (e.g., Wilson and Hildreth, 2003). PDCs are produced from volcanic eruptions across many orders of magnitude, from small-volume events (<0.001 to 1 km3) to caldera-forming eruptions with volumes around 101–103 km3 of erupted material (Druitt, 1998; Dufek et al., 2015). PDCs are hot, unstoppable, gas-particle mixtures that move extremely quickly across the ground surface at velocities of tens to hundreds of kilometres per hour and have temperatures of typically between 200 and 600°C (Cole, 2015; Dufek et al., 2015). Most PDCs propagate to distances of between a few to tens of kilometres from the source (Ogburn, 2012). For exceptionally large-magnitude events, PDCs may travel over 100 km and cover areas of up to 103–104 km2 (Takarada and Hoshizumi, 2020). Many of the aforementioned variables can be used as hazard metrics for PDCs: flow speed, flow density, temperature, dynamic pressure, flow and deposit thickness, maximum runout, invasion area, etc. Two different flow parts commonly form PDCs: a dense, basal undercurrent dominated by particle-particle interactions; and a dilute, upper part whose motion is mainly dominated by turbulence (Branney and Kokelaar, 2002; Sulpizio et al., 2014; Cole, 2015). The dense basal part strongly interacts with (and is controlled by) the topographic surface as it erodes and deposits material along its path (Doronzo, 2012). The dilute upper part tends to be less controlled by topography and may decouple from the main dense undercurrent, overcoming topographic obstacles and following diverse propagation paths (e.g., Fisher, 1995; Ogburn et al., 2014). Extensive numerical modelling of PDCs has been conducted over recent decades, to better understand PDCs and quantify their hazard (Sulpizio et al., 2014; Dufek et al., 2015). Most past efforts have focused on simulating either the dense basal (e.g., Patra et al., 2005) or the dilute upper part of PDCs (e.g., Bursik and Woods, 1996), but several multiphase flow models have also been presented (e.g., Suzuki et al., 2005). Between 1500 and 2017 AD, PDCs were the most deadly of all volcanic hazards: there were 102 fatal incidents and 59,958 fatalities caused directly by PDCs. 50% of PDC fatalities were recorded up to 10 km from a volcano and 90% up to 20 km (Brown et al., 2017). The 1883 eruption from Krakatau volcano (Indonesia) resulted in PDC fatalities up to 80 km from the volcano, aided by the passage of PDCs over the sea (Carey et al., 1996)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/cb39af3e-727f-4768-a285-6ed10b896e57","prefLabel":{"en":"Tsunami (Volcanic Trigger)"},"definition":{"en":"Tsunami is the Japanese term meaning wave (‘nami’) in a harbour (‘tsu’). It is a series of travelling waves of extremely long length and period, usually generated by disturbances associated with earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor (IOC, 2019).Baxter, P.J., R. Boyle, P. Cole, A. Neri, R. Spence and G. Zuccaro, 2005. The impacts of pyroclastic surges on buildings at the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat. Bulletin of Volcanology, 67:292-313.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["All fires, regardless of trigger, need three elements to sustain themselves: fuel, oxygen, and heat. The heat thermally decomposes (pyrolysis) the fuel into a hot gas (volatiles) which mixes with the oxygen which then creates a combustible gas namely the flame, the edge of which is where the combustion reaction happens. The flame can then transfer the heat through: radiation to other objects that it has a line of sight to; convection of hot gases; and conduction through the fuel that is pyrolysing (Drysdale, 2011). Most cellulosic materials pyrolyse between 150 and 500°C to producing volatiles (Zhou et al., 2013). These volatiles will spontaneously ignite if the surface of the pyrolysing object reaches between 450 and 600°C, or between 300 and 450°C if there is a flame already present (Drysdale, 2011). As the fire grows within a room, the rate at which fuel is consumed increases if there is sufficient oxygen within the room. If oxygen levels are low, then the fire will ‘move’ towards more oxygen-rich environments, this causes a phenomenon called flashover, where flames (typically about 1 m long under laboratory conditions for a standard door and a 9 m2 room) are ejected from compartment openings (Drysdale, 2011). In windier conditions, these can increase up to 3 m for a standard door-sized opening (de Koker et al., 2020), however this is not a linear relationship, and above a certain wind speed (dependent on the size of flame and other spatial and material properties) the length of the flame will not increase any further as convective cooling due to the wind reduces the amount of heat energy within the flame. If the spatial distribution of homes is close, then fires can spread from one building to another. The separation distance will be determined by the specific typology of the compartment/ room, its openings, and the fuel therein. Four areas should be considered in relation to fire triggered specifically by volcanic eruptions: lava flows, pyroclastic density currents (PDCs), hot tephra, and ground shaking. If fires are triggered in one or more rooms in a home, then homes can be severely affected by fire damage during/following a volcanic eruption. Urban fires during/following a volcanic eruption have not been systematically recorded in detail to date. Baxter et al. (2005) have created a six-point damage scale which incorporates fire as an observed effect for PDCs."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/bdbcdb6e-844a-4557-8183-2d3f425f7827","prefLabel":{"en":"Volcanic Gases and Aerosols"},"altLabel":{"en":["Aerosols: Particles,","Droplets,","Fumes","PM. Vog (a term for volcanic gas and aerosol air pollution, used mostly in Hawaii)","Particulate matter,","Volatiles,","Volcanic gases: Vapours,"]},"definition":{"en":"Volcanic gas includes any gas-phase substance that is emitted by volcanic or volcanic-geothermal activity. Volcanic aerosols include liquid or solid particles that are small enough to be suspended in the air, and that are emitted by volcanic or volcanic-geothermal activity (adapted from Baxter and Horwell, 2015, Fischer and Chiodini 2015, and Williams- Jones and Rymer 2015).Volcanic gas includes any gas-phase substance that is emitted by volcanic or volcanic-geothermal activity. Volcanic aerosols include liquid or solid particles that are small enough to be suspended in the air, and that are emitted by volcanic or volcanic-geothermal activity (adapted from Baxter and Horwell, 2015, Fischer and Chiodini 2015, and Williams- Jones and Rymer 2015).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Volcanic gases can be emitted directly into the atmosphere from magma or by magma interacting with crustal rocks. They can be observed with spectroscopic instruments from ground and space, and their future dispersion can be modelled, allowing forecasts of gas and aerosol concentrations to be made. Volcanic gas composition and concentrations can be modified through interaction with ground or surface waters; gases generated by heating and vaporising groundwater in volcanicgeothermal areas. Volcanic gases can also remain pressurised in the subsurface or within lakes (Oregon State, no date). Volcanic aerosol sizes range from a few nanometres (nm) to several hundred micrometres (μm). Volcanic aerosol refers to particles formed through condensation of volcanic gases, or through reaction of the gases with the atmosphere and sunlight and is thereby distinct from ‘ash’ or ‘tephra’ that is formed through fragmentation of magma or lava. Aerosols can be in liquid or solid form and evolve between these states with time (Oregon State, no date). Volcanic gases and aerosols are emitted by almost any type of volcanic activity: The chemical composition of volcanic gas and aerosol emissions is highly heterogeneous. The composition changes continuously as the emissions drift away from their source and react with the atmosphere and sunlight. Typically, the most abundant volcanic gas is water vapour (80% or more of the gas mass). Other common gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and hydrogen halides (hydrogen chloride [HCl] and hydrogen fluoride [HF]). Radon and carbon monoxide (CO) are also emitted in trace amounts (Oregon State, no date). Aerosol forms by condensation of volcanic gases, both near-instantaneously after emission, and on the timescale of hours to days. Sulphate, a common aerosol component, forms through conversion of SO2 gas. Aerosol contains a variety of trace components, including elements collectively classified as metal pollutants by environmental and health protection agencies (Oregon State, no date). The abundance of emitted volcanic gases and aerosol varies greatly among eruptions. Recent large eruptions of Holuhraun in Iceland 2014–2015 and Kīlauea Hawaii in 2018, emitted as much SO2 per day as anthropogenic activities in China (50–200 kt/day) over several months (Pfeffer et al., 2018; Kern et al., 2020). A larger-scale emission scenario, which may occur in the coming decades or centuries, includes a ‘Laki-type’ eruption in Iceland which can emit ten times more SO2 than the recent eruptions described above. There are tens, or potentially hundreds, of volcanoes worldwide which emit smaller amounts of SO2 (0.5–5 kt/day) (Carn et al., 2016) but sustain the emissions over years-to-decades (e.g., Mt Etna; Aiuppa et al. 2008). Volcanic gas and aerosol exposure is listed as the cause of 1% of total volcanic hazard fatalities (2283 people; Brown et al., 2017). This estimate includes only fatalities due to extreme direct exposure and does not include premature mortality caused by long-term air and environmental pollution. It has been estimated that 800 million people live within 100 km of a volcano that has erupted in the last 10,000 years (Auker et al., 2013), a range within which they could be exposed to this hazard."]}}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/d9621e9b-33e1-49b0-976c-5c91d81f4d54","prefLabel":{"en":"Water"},"altLabel":{"en":["waters"]},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/a8024648-8dcf-44af-8128-bebfa5d4d2bd","prefLabel":{"en":"Benthic"},"definition":{"en":"Occurring at the bottom of a body of water; related to benthos (NOAA, 2018)."},"narrower":[{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b18f15ac-65d5-4fef-aedf-9db862514950","prefLabel":{"en":"Benthos"},"definition":{"en":"The community of organisms living on the bottom or in sediments of a body of water (such as an ocean, a river or a lake). The ecological zone at the bottom of a body of water, including the sediment surface and some subsurface layers, is known as the benthic zone."}}]}]},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/b360328c-112a-4bbf-a224-c72e2cb64c54","prefLabel":{"en":"Water-borne diseases"},"definition":{"en":"Waterborne diseases are those diseases that are transmitted by ingestion of contaminated water (WHO, 2012).Waterborne diseases are those diseases that are transmitted by ingestion of contaminated water (WHO, 2012).
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["Important waterborne diseases include diarrhoeal diseases, cholera, shigella, typhoid, hepatitis A and E, and poliomyelitis (WHO, 2012). Diarrhoea occurs worldwide and causes 4% of all deaths and 5% of health loss to various forms of disability or loss of function. It is most commonly caused by gastrointestinal infections which kill around 2.2 million people globally each year, mostly children in developing countries. Use of water in hygiene is an important preventive measure but contaminated water is also an important cause of diarrhoea. Cholera and dysentery cause severe, sometimes life-threatening forms of diarrhoea (WHO, 2016a). Diarrhoea is the passage of loose or liquid stools more frequently than is normal for the individual. It is primarily a symptom of gastrointestinal infection. Depending on the type of infection, the diarrhoea may be watery (for example in cholera) or passed with blood (in dysentery, for example). Diarrhoea due to infection may last a few days, or several weeks, as in persistent diarrhoea. Severe diarrhoea may be life-threatening due to fluid loss in watery diarrhoea, particularly in infants and young children, the malnourished and people with impaired immunity. The impact of repeated or persistent diarrhoea on nutrition and the effect of malnutrition on susceptibility to infectious diarrhoea can be linked in a vicious cycle among children, especially in developing countries. Diarrhoea is also associated with other infections such as malaria and measles. Chemical irritation of the gut or non-infectious bowel disease can also result in diarrhoea (WHO, 2016a). Diarrhoea is a symptom of infection caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms most of which can be spread by contaminated water. It is more common when there is a shortage of clean water for drinking, cooking and cleaning and basic hygiene is important in prevention. Water contaminated with human faeces, for example, from municipal sewage, septic tanks and latrines is of special concern. Animal faeces also contain microorganisms that can cause diarrhoea. Diarrhoea can also spread from person to person, aggravated by poor personal hygiene. Food is another major cause of diarrhoea when it is prepared or stored in unhygienic conditions. Water can contaminate food during irrigation, and fish and seafood from polluted water may also contribute to the disease (WHO, 2016). The infectious agents that cause diarrhoea are present or are sporadically introduced throughout the world. Diarrhoea is a rare occurrence for most people who live in developed countries where sanitation is widely available, access to safe water is high and personal and domestic hygiene is relatively good. Worldwide around 1.1 billion people lack access to improved water sources and 2.4 billion have no basic sanitation. Diarrhoea due to infection is widespread throughout the developing world. In Southeast Asia and Africa, diarrhoea is responsible for as much as 8.5% and 7.7% of all deaths, respectively (WHO, 2016a)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/98ba2cb8-e100-4541-b652-1d1381090eb3","prefLabel":{"en":"Water-use efficiency"},"definition":{"en":"Carbon gain by photosynthesis per unit of water lost by evapotranspiration. It can be expressed on a short-term basis as the ratio of photosynthetic carbon gain per unit transpirational water loss, or on a seasonal basis as the ratio of net primary production or agricultural yield to the amount of water used."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/1f4b0f81-cabf-4815-a942-b509f60bce5e","prefLabel":{"en":"Weather"},"definition":{"en":"The state of the atmosphere with regard to temperature, cloudiness, rainfall, wind and other meteorological conditions. It is not the same as climate which is the average weather over a much longer period (BBC News, 2014).\n\nSource: BBC News, 2014.. Accessed 18 February 2026.
"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/05da2588-845f-46dd-b626-20566f085719","prefLabel":{"en":"web-based climate adaptation platform"}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/20aab025-5cc9-48ab-b4ec-4687886042fc","prefLabel":{"en":"Well-mixed greenhouse gas"},"definition":{"en":"A greenhouse gas (GHG) that has an atmospheric lifetime long enough (greater than several years) to be homogeneously mixed in the troposphere, and as such the global average mixing ratio can be determined from a network of surface observations. For many well-mixed greenhouse gases, measurements made in remote regions differ from the global mean by < 15%."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/c7562648-d5f9-44ed-b9d0-4955713c147a","prefLabel":{"en":"West Nile Fever (Human)"},"altLabel":{"en":["West Nile Disease"]},"definition":{"en":"West Nile virus disease is a fatal neurological disease caused by a virus transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes. The virus is a member of the flavivirus genus and belongs to the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae (WHO, 2017).WHO, 2017. West Nile virus. World Health Organization (WHO). Accessed 26 October 2020.
"},"scopeNote":{"en":["West Nile virus disease can cause neurological disease and death in people. West Nile virus (WNV) is commonly found in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, North America and West Asia. WNV is maintained in nature in a cycle involving transmission between birds and mosquitoes. Humans, horses and other mammals can be infected (WHO, 2017). WNV was first isolated in a woman in the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937. It was identified in birds (crows and columbiformes) in the Nile delta region in 1953. Before 1997, WNV was not considered pathogenic for birds, but at that time in Israel a more virulent strain caused the death of different bird species presenting signs of encephalitis and paralysis. Human infections attributable to WNV have been reported in many countries for over 50 years. In 1999, a WNV circulating in Israel and Tunisia was imported into New York producing a large and dramatic outbreak that spread throughout the continental USA in the following years. The WNV outbreak in the USA (1999–2010) highlighted that importation and establishment of vector-borne pathogens outside their current habitat represent a serious danger to the world. The largest outbreaks occurred in Greece, Israel, Romania, Russia and the USA. Outbreak sites are on major bird migratory routes. In its original range, WNV was prevalent throughout Africa, parts of Europe, Middle East, West Asia, and Australia. Since its introduction in 1999 into the USA, the virus has spread and is now widely established from Canada to Venezuela (WHO, 2017). Human infection is most often the result of bites from infected mosquitoes. Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which circulate the virus in their blood for a few days. The virus eventually gets into the mosquito’s salivary glands. During later blood meals (when mosquitoes bite), the virus may be injected into humans and animals, where it can multiply and possibly cause illness (WHO, 2017). The virus may also be transmitted through contact with other infected animals, their blood, or other tissues. A very small proportion of human infections have occurred through organ transplant, blood transfusions and breast milk. There is one reported case of transplacental (mother-to-child) WNV transmission. To date, no human-to-human transmission of WNV through casual contact has been documented, and no transmission of WNV to health care workers has been reported when standard infection control precautions have been put in place. However, transmission of WNV to laboratory workers has been reported (WHO, 2017). Infection with WNV is either asymptomatic (no symptoms) in around 80% of infected people or can lead to West Nile fever or severe West Nile disease. About 20% of people who become infected with the WNV will develop West Nile fever. The symptoms of severe disease (also called neuroinvasive disease, such as West Nile encephalitis or meningitis or West Nile poliomyelitis) include headache, high fever, neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, convulsions, muscle weakness, and paralysis. It is estimated that approximately 1 in 150 persons infected with the WNV will develop a more severe form of disease. Serious illness can occur in people of any age, however people over the age of 50 years and some immunocompromised persons (for example, transplant patients) are at highest risk for getting severely ill when infected with WNV. The incubation period is usually 3 to 14 days (WHO, 2017). Diagnosis is by laboratory tests, including molecular tests (PCR) which can detect the virus genome during the acute phase of infection, and by serological tests to detect the individual’s immune response to recent or past infection (WHO, 2017). West Nile Virus is maintained in nature in a mosquito-bird-mosquito transmission cycle. Mosquitoes of the genus Culex are generally considered the principal vectors of WNV, in particular C. pipiens. WNV is maintained in mosquito populations through vertical transmission (adults to eggs). Birds are the reservoir hosts of WNV. In Europe, Africa, Middle East and Asia, mortality in birds associated with WNV infection is rare. In striking contrast, the virus is highly pathogenic for birds in the Americas. Members of the crow family (Corvidae) are particularly susceptible, but the virus has also been detected in dead and dying birds of more than 250 species. Birds can be infected through a variety of routes other than mosquito bites, and different species may have different potential for maintaining the transmission cycle. Horses, just like humans, are ‘dead-end’ hosts, meaning that while they become infected, they do not spread the infection. Symptomatic infections in horses are also rare and generally mild, but can cause neurological disease, including fatal encephalomyelitis (WHO, 2017)."]}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/ec75924e-ade7-4a8d-9f63-4f295ad6bd8d","prefLabel":{"en":"Wetland"},"definition":{"en":"Land that is covered or saturated by water for all or part of the year (e.g., peatland)."}},{"id":"http://connectivity-hub.com/terms/7d12a100-fec2-4b3d-aaa5-923982586180","prefLabel":{"en":"Younger Dryas"},"definition":{"en":"The period from approximately 12.9 to 11.7 ka (thousand years before 1950), during the last deglacial transition, characterized by a temporary return to colder conditions in many locations, especially around the North Atlantic."}}],"@context":{"@version":1.1,"id":"@id","type":"@type","@vocab":"http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#","xsd":"http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#","dct":"http://purl.org/dc/terms/","dc":"http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/","schema":"https://schema.org/","vann":"http://purl.org/vocab/vann/","ldp":"http://www.w3.org/ns/ldp#","owl":"http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#","title":{"@id":"dct:title","@container":"@language"},"dc:title":{"@id":"dc:title","@container":"@language"},"dc:description":{"@id":"dc:description","@container":"@language"},"description":{"@id":"dct:description","@container":"@language"},"license":{"@id":"dct:license","@container":"@language"},"issued":{"@id":"dct:issued","@type":"xsd:date"},"created":{"@id":"dct:created","@type":"xsd:date"},"modified":{"@id":"dct:modified","@type":"xsd:date"},"creator":"dct:creator","publisher":"dct:publisher","preferredNamespacePrefix":"vann:preferredNamespacePrefix","preferredNamespaceUri":"vann:preferredNamespaceUri","isBasedOn":"schema:isBasedOn","source":"dct:source","prefLabel":{"@container":"@language"},"altLabel":{"@container":["@language","@set"]},"hiddenLabel":{"@container":["@language","@set"]},"definition":{"@container":"@language"},"note":{"@container":["@language","@set"]},"changeNote":{"@container":["@language","@set"]},"editorialNote":{"@container":["@language","@set"]},"historyNote":{"@container":["@language","@set"]},"scopeNote":{"@container":["@language","@set"]},"notation":{"@container":"@set"},"example":{"@container":"@language"},"narrower":{"@container":"@set"},"related":{"@container":"@set"},"relatedMatch":{"@container":"@set"},"narrowerTransitive":{"@container":"@set"},"broaderTransitive":{"@container":"@set"},"broadMatch":{"@container":"@set"},"narrowMatch":{"@container":"@set"},"closeMatch":{"@container":"@set"},"exactMatch":{"@container":"@set"},"hasTopConcept":{"@container":"@set"},"inScheme":{"@container":"@set"},"topConceptOf":{"@container":"@set"},"deprecated":{"@id":"owl:deprecated","@type":"xsd:boolean"},"isReplacedBy":{"@id":"dct:isReplacedBy","@container":"@set"}}}